CH3 - Family and Development Theories: Concepts, Models, and Perspectives in Human Development

Theory

a set of interconnected ideas that logically explain a particular pattern of behaviors and events

Concept

is an abstract, intangible idea or thing

Relations

the associations or links between concepts

Proposition

states that concepts are related to one another in a meaningful and specific way

Theoretical framework

broader and more abstract than a theory

Perspective

even broader and provides a wide lens through which to examine human development and families

Model

is a very specific and concrete set of propositions that are informed by a theory

Lifespan perspective

One of the most popular and widely used theoretical perspectives in HDFSl involves the study of development throughout the entire lifetime

Life course perspective

includes additional concepts and propositions, and is a separate theoretical perspective

Symbolic interaction theory

focuses on how our social rules are created through human interactions and how individuals learn rules and norms through socialization; how we develop our self-concept and identity

Bioecological theory

proposes that development occurs within a number of nested and interactive environmental systems

Bioecological theory proposal

microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem

Proximal Processes

are a central concept within bioecological theory that we have already discussed; reciprocal interactions between a person and their environment are key to understanding individuals' developmental pathways

Process-Person-Context-Time Model

PPCT model

Process-Person-Context-Time Model Defined

proposes that an individual's disposition interacts with their context over time, and that through proximal processes, individuals are simultaneously influenced by the people with whom they interact, the contexts in which they interact, and time

Family systems theory

assumes that all parts of the system (family members) are interconnected and interdependent, and it is essential to consider the whole system (the entire family) when attempting to understand family dynamics; family members are organized into various subsystems that possess different levels of power and control to influence broader family dynamics

Boundary - Family Systems Theory

border between the system and its environment that influences how information enters and exits the system

Feedback loop - Family Systems Theory

interactions among family members that promote stability or change

Negative feedback loops - Family Systems Theory

help to maintain the status quo and stability

Positive feedback loops - Family Systems Theory

Families attempt to achieve equilibrium in which they are balancing change

Family Stress Theory

examines how families navigate inevitable stressors and changes; focuses more on the positive and negative events that occur among families

ABC-X Model - Family Stress Theory

A is the provoking event or stressor, B is the family's strengths and resources when the event occurs, C is how the family interprets the event and the meaning attached to the event, and X is the outcome of the event.

Pauline Boss - The Contextual Model of Family Stress

highlights that families experience stressors based on a variety of internal and external contexts

Social Exchange Theory

Individuals behave based on perceptions of rewards and costs to maximize their rewards while minimizing costs; rational beings choose and accurately assess the rewards and costs they may experience

Conflict Theory

theorizes about the interdependent nature; recognizes that tensions, stressors, and divergent interests are integral and normal parts of family life; argues that humans are in constant negotiations in order to optimize their well-being

Power - Conflict Theory

It is important to consider power differentials in order to understand how family members can negotiate conflict

Behaviorism

John Watson; observable behaviors; all behavior was learned, and that children learn to behave in a certain manner through conditioning processes

Behaviorism - Classical Conditioning

Demonstrates that behaviors can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus

Also called respondent conditioning - Ivan Pavlov - dogs

Operant Conditioning - Behaviorism

BF Skinner - the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat an action) or by something unwanted (which makes actions less likely to be repeated); reinforcement vs. punishment

Operant Conditioning - Behaviorism - Methods

Positive reinforcement - adding something pleasant to encourage behavior

Negative reinforcement -

Taking something away to encourage behavior

Positive punishment - adding something unpleasant to discourage behavior

Negative punishment - taking something away to discourage behavior

Cognitive developmental theory

Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world - Piaget; can help young children learn gendered behaviors and develop gender identity

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. concrete operational

4. formal operational

Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoporational

Stage from ages 2 to 7, learn language, don't comprehend operations of concrete logic, don't understand conservation, egocentrism

concrete operational

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Sociocultural Theory

The approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture, Vygotsky

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development.- Sociocultural theory

Can do independently: Tasks the learner already masters. These offer no new growth and can cause boredom.

The ZPD (Can do with help): Tasks just above the learner's current level. They are challenging yet achievable with proper guidance, driving cognitive development.

Cannot do yet: Tasks too difficult for the learner, even with assistance, which lead to frustration and failure. [1, 2, 3]

Social Learning Theory

How social interactions influence our development: individuals learn through personal experience, direct communication, and modeling; Individuals who learn that a certain behavior is appropriate and rewarding are then more likely to engage in that behavior themselves ( Bandura, 1986 ). Individuals who learn that a certain behavior is not appropriate are also less likely to engage in that behavior

Attachment Theory

theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival

Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth - Attachment

Secure Attachment (~70%): The infant is distressed when the caregiver leaves but is easily comforted upon reunion, using the parent as a secure base to return to play. [1, 2, 3]

Insecure-Avoidant (~15%): The infant shows little outward distress when the caregiver leaves and actively avoids or ignores the parent upon return. [1, 2, 3]

Insecure-Resistant / Ambivalent (~15%): The infant is extremely distressed by separation and reacts to the reunion with mixed signals of seeking and angrily resisting contact. [1, 2]

Disorganized (discovered later): The infant displays confused, contradictory, or fearful behaviors toward the caregiver, often linked to unresponsive or frightening caregiving

Feminist theories

Examine women's social, economic, and political inequality; gender is socially constructed, not biologically defined; Feminists highlight and problematize how our societal expectations for all genders can have negative consequences, including unequal divisions of household labor, sexual violence, and poverty of women and children worldwide

Praxis

Putting theory into practice and is a call for social activism

Queer Theory

Is rooted in a number of scholarly disciplines and activist movements and examines how we actively construct gender, sexuality, and family, and challenges power inequities; fluidity; challenges heronormativity

Intersectionality Theory

Explores how multiple, simultaneously existing identities (gender, race, class, sexual orientation, etc.) influence individuals' development and lived experiences

Three Types of intersectionality

structural intersectionality (systems are interconnected and interact to treat individuals with different identities in different ways), political intersectionality (recognizes that various political and activist movements have ignored or further oppressed women of color), and representational intersectionality. (acknowledges the various ways in which women of color are shown and discussed in media, policies, and cultural narratives as a mechanism to reinforce and justify oppression)