Instrumental Learning - Choice Behavior

What are Concurrent Schedules?

Two schedules in effect simultaneously, each reinforced according to its own rules.

What freedom do participants have in Concurrent Schedules?

Participants can switch between the two schedules at any time.

How is the Relative Rate of Responding calculated?

Rate of responding on Choice A divided by the rate of responding on all choices.

How is the Relative Rate of Reinforcement calculated?

Rate of reinforcement on Choice A divided by the rate of reinforcement on all choices.

What is Herrnstein’s Matching Law?

The principle that the relative rate of responding equals the relative rate of reinforcement.

What does the Matching Law suggest about behavior?

The relative rate of responding on an alternative matches the relative rate of reinforcement on that alternative.

Why is the significance of Matching Law important?

It indicates that the frequency of a behavior depends on its own reinforcement schedule and the reinforcement rates of other activities.

What factors influence how often a behavior occurs?

Both the schedule of reinforcement for that behavior and the reinforcement rates of alternative activities.

What is the Generalized Form of Matching Law?

It incorporates two additional variables to account for “undermatching.”

What does the variable "s" represent in the Generalized Form?

It represents varying sensitivities to changes in the reinforcement schedule.

Give an example of how sensitivity ("s") might affect behavior.

An individual may not notice that earning extra credit in one way is more difficult than the alternative.

What does the variable "b" signify in the context of response bias?

It indicates a preference for certain activities over others, even if those activities have a lower reinforcement schedule

Provide an example of response bias ("b").

Preferring to work on spreadsheets over giving presentations, despite receiving more praise for the presentations.

What is the S-R association?

The Stimulus-Response association, where a specific stimulus (S) elicits a specific response (R). For example, a bell (stimulus) leads to a dog salivating (response).

What is the S-O association?

The Stimulus-Outcome association, which links a stimulus (S) to an outcome (O). For example, the sound of a bell (stimulus) is associated with food (outcome) in classical conditioning.

What is the R-O association?

The Response-Outcome association, connecting a response (R) to an outcome (O). For example, pressing a lever (response) results in receiving food (outcome) in operant conditioning.

What is the S-(R-O) association?

It is a hierarchical association where a stimulus (S) leads to a response (R), which in turn is associated with an outcome (O).

How does the S-(R-O) association function?

The stimulus triggers a specific response, and that response is linked to a particular outcome, creating a hierarchical structure of learning.

Provide an example of the S-(R-O) association.

In a training scenario, the sound of a whistle (S) leads a dog to sit (R), which results in receiving a treat (O). Here, the whistle triggers the behavior, and the behavior leads to the reward.

What is the main focus of Rescorla and Colwill's devaluation experiment?

To provide evidence for Response-Outcome (R-O) associations in learning behavior.

What was the experimental design in Phase I?

Rats learned that performing Response 1 (R1) led to Outcome 1 (O1) and performing Response 2 (R2) led to Outcome 2 (O2).

What happened in Phase II of the experiment?

Outcome 1 (O1) was paired with LiCl to induce illness, effectively devaluing O1.

What was the test phase in the experiment?

Rats were given the choice to perform either Response 1 (R1) or Response 2 (R2).

What were the results of the test phase experiment?

Rats chose to perform Response 2 (R2) over Response 1 (R1).

What do the results signify about R-O associations?

The results indicate that rats associate R1 with O1. After O1 made them ill, they avoided R1, demonstrating the influence of the devaluation of O1 on behavior.

What do the results signify about S-O associations?

The results demonstrate that rats can learn S-O associations, as they choose responses based on the stimulus present.

What is Stimulus Control?

The phenomenon where cues present during operant learning signal when it is appropriate to make a specific operant response.

Provide an example of Stimulus Control.

In a bedroom (context cue), undressing (response) is appropriate; in public (context cue), undressing is inappropriate.

Forms of Stimulus Control: Intradimensional Discrimination

Distinguishing between stimuli that differ within the same dimension, such as a red light versus a green light.

Forms of Stimulus Control: Interoceptive Stimuli

Internal sensations (like those from drug withdrawal) that signal the need to engage in specific behaviors, such as drug-seeking.

Forms of Stimulus Control: Configural Stimuli

A combination of stimuli that together signal when to respond, as opposed to individual stimuli.

Example: figure or “whole” image (not just a light or tone) signals when it is appropriate to make the response

Forms of Stimulus Control: Contextual Cues

Environmental signals, like landmarks, that help an organism navigate their surroundings.

Example: Learn to navigate about town using landmarks.

Describe a typical Stimulus Control experiment.

In training, a red circle with a white triangle signals food when pecked. In testing, researchers assess responses to the red circle and the white triangle alone.

What does differential responding indicate?

The degree of control a stimulus has over behavior, reflecting the ability to discriminate between stimuli.

What is Stimulus Generalization?

When an organism responds similarly to two or more stimuli, opposite of stimulus discrimination.

What is a Stimulus Generalization Gradient?

A measure of how much generalization occurs; a steep gradient indicates more stimulus control, while a flat gradient indicates less control.

Example: A pigeon is trained to peck a red light for food. If that pigeon is colorblind (he cannot distinguish one color from another), then he will peck at all lights, no matter what color (flat stimulus generalization gradient). If the pigeon is not color-blind, then he will only peck at the red light and maybe some colors that are close to red.

What factors affect Stimulus Control?

Properties of the stimulus, sensory capacity, ease of conditioning, types of reinforcers, and learning experiences.

Sensory Capacity and Orientation

The physical limits of what our sensory systems can perceive

Example: humans cannot perceive sounds above 20,000 Hz. If 25,000Hz sound is used as a signal, the response will not come under stimulus control

-sets limit on what stimuli can control behavior.

-stimulus control exps. are used to determine what the organism can perceive.

What does "Ease of Conditioning" refer to?

The likelihood that certain stimuli will effectively signal reinforcement, influencing how easily they can be associated with a response.

What types of signals are easier to pair with appetitive (desirable or appealing, often related to the satisfaction of basic needs or desires) outcomes?

Visual signals/cues are easier to pair with responses that lead to appetitive outcomes.

What types of signals are easier to pair with the removal of aversive outcomes?

Auditory signals/cues are easier to pair with responses that lead to the removal of aversive outcomes.

How can stimulus elements be perceived?

Stimulus elements can be perceived as individual components or as a whole cue, affecting how well learning is generalized.

What influences the extent to which stimuli control behavior?

Experience with stimuli and learning about them influences their control over behavior.

Define S+ and S- in Discrimination Training.

S+ is the stimulus that signals reinforcement is available, while S- signals that reinforcement is not available.

Provide an example of S+ and S- using traffic lights.

S+ is the green light (indicating you can cross), and S- is the red light (indicating you cannot cross).

What conditions facilitate faster learning in discrimination training?

Learning is faster when S+ and S- are presented simultaneously and when they are similar in appearance.

Give an example of learning discrimination with similar items.

Learning to discriminate between flags is more effective when the flags are similar and hard to distinguish.

How can interoceptive cues function in discrimination training?

For example, hunger can be S+ (you eat), while feeling full can be S- (you don’t eat).