IB HL Psychology Cognitive Approach Studies Review

Studies that can be used for HL Psych Cognitive Approach with aims, procedure and findings explained.

Glanzer and Cunitz (Army) Aim

Glanzer and Cunitz (Army) Aim

Influence of external variables on Primacy and Recency effect and support STM and LTM

Glanzer and Cunitz (Army) Procedure

50 US Army males

1. Memory Test: One Syllable Nouns

2. Shown a list of 15 words which they had to recall immediately, after 10 seconds, or 30 seconds

   • Used counting as a distraction during the delay

Glanzer and Cunitz (Army) Findings

NO DELAY: First 5 and last 3 words recalled best

DELAY: Recall of first few words remained same, but poor recall of later words

Shallice and Warrington (WMM) Aim

Investigate retrieval functions of STM and LTM after impairment

Shallice and Warrington (WMM) Procedure

1. Verbal Experiment: Pairs of letters spoken to subject, given 5 seconds to recall before next one called

2. Visual: Detect which digit set missing from digit sets

Shallice and Warrington (WMM) Findings and SUPPORT

Findings:

• Reduction in STM capacity

• LTM normal functioning but STM impaired

SUPPORTS: Separate components for visual and verbal information as verbal information was affected, not visual

Landry and Bartling (1,2,1) Aim

Seeing how articulatory suppression affects recall to examine the role of the phonological loop in the WMM

Landry and Bartling (1,2,1) Procedure

Small group of university students:

• Two groups (control and experimental)

Experimental experienced articulatory suppression (repetition of 1 and 2 during reading letters)

Landry and Bartling (1,2,1) Findings and SUPPORTS

Findings: Experimental group scored lower than the control group

Supports: Working model of memory

• Articulatory suppression interferes with the phonological loop

Bartlett (Ghost Story) Aim

Investigate how memory of a story is affected by type of reproduction

Bartlett (Ghost Story) Procedure

Participants read “The War of Ghosts” 2x at normal pace.

After 15 minutes, participants “reproduced the story”

Two groups:

• Repeated Reproduction: Reproduce story after short time and repeatedly throughout the week

• Serial Reproduction: Recall story and retell it to another person, who retold the story to another person, etc

Bartlett (Ghost Story) Findings and SUPPORT

3 patterns of distortion that were evident:

• Assimilation - story shifted towards participants views (British expectations)

• Leveling - Loss of detail seen insignificant

• Sharpening - new inferences added, emotions, etc

SUPPORTS:

Information is often being changed to fit into existing schemas to create meaning

Memories are not copies of experiences but reconstructions

Brewer (Office) Aim

Investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory

Brewer (Office) Procedure

Large group of university psychology students

• Seated in room made to look like an office

  • Typical and Atypical objects, omitted objects (books)

• All chairs but one had objects on them

• Participants told to wait in office for study, 35 seconds later, called into different room and asked to recall items

3 Groups:

1. Written Recall: Write description about objects, recognition test, Likert scale

2. Drawing Recall (given outline of room, asked to draw in objects)

3. Verbal Recognition (read a list of objects, asked if they were or were not in the room)

Brewer (Office) Findings and SUPPORT

Findings: 

• Free Recall: Typical items more recalled, change objects to match schema

• When selecting list items, identified mostly atypical items

Schema played a role in memory of objects in the office

SUPPORTS:

Schema can influence episodic memory and may cause memories to be inaccurate

Rogers (Self Reference) Aim

Determine the relative position of self-reference

Rogers (Self Reference) Procedure

Small group of students

Set Up: 48 trials with 3 sec presentation of cue word, quick blank interval, then next adjective.

Study done in two parts:

1. First: Subjects rated 40 adjectives on 1 of 4 tasks (answering yes or no if the adjective applied to the cue question, such as “Does this describe you?”)

2. Second: Asked to recall as many adjectives

Adjectives rated based on structural, phonemic, semantic and self-reference

Rogers (Self Reference) Findings and SUPPORT

Subjects were were able to better recall information that was self referenced (based on if it described themselves)

• Effective memory tool and increases recall

• Can’t be explained by MSM or WMM, only Level of Processing Theory

Talarico (9/11) Aim

Determine what properties differentiate FBM from EDM and if they’re more accurate

Talarico (9/11) Procedure

Participants split into 3 groups after first session (coming back at different intervals)

1. First session day after 9/11

   1. 2 questionnaires asking about events on 9/11 and EDM in days before attack with word cue

2. Complete questionnaire about memories that assessed various properties (recollection, vividness)

3. Brought in for second and then third session, tested with same questionnaire

Talarico (9/11) Findings and SUPPORT

• FBMs differed from EDMs

  • Better recollection

  • Exaggerated confidence in accuracy

  • More emotional involvement and rehearsal

• FBMs not different in consistency (not more accurate) but vividness and confidence more with FBM

Sharot (Summer vs September) Aim

Explore neural basis of flashbulb memories and examine characteristics

Sharot (Summer vs September) Procedure

Small group of participants who were in NYC during 9/11

→ Separated into 2 groups based on distance from WTC (downtown vs midtown)

1. 🤖 In fMRI scanner, shown word cues on screen along with Summer, September in order for participant to link word to summer holidays before attack or to 9/11

2. 🧠 Brain activity observed when recalled (comparisons between groups and summer vs september memories)

3. ⭐ After, asked to write desc of memories and rate in areas of vividness, detail, confidence, emotional arousal

Sharot (Summer vs September) Findings and SUPPORT

Findings: 

• Activation of left amygdala greater in downtown group recalling memories of 9/11 than summer

• Midtown group had equal levels of response in amygdala during both

Suggests:

→ Close personal experiences are critical in engaging neural mechanisms that produce vivid memories of FBM

• Activation of left amygdala correlated with recall of FBM

Overall amygdala important in emotions and fear response

Kulkofsky (Culture) Aim

 To examine impact of culture, whether collectivist (gov. before all, china, russia) or individualistic (democratic, canada, us) on the formation of flashbulb memories

Kulkofsky (Culture) Procedure

Large group of participants from 5 different countries (US, UK, Germany, Turkey, China)

1. Public Events

   • Write memories of public events in their lifetime
     

2. Memory Questionnaire on each event asking traditional FBM questions (who, what, where, when)

   • Each answer scored a 1, no answer scored a 0, each memory scores out of 5

3. Participants rated questions on a Likert scale (1-7) for each memory including:

   • National or international importance

   • Personal importance

   • Intensity of emotional reaction

   • Shock/surprise

   • Retelling of event

Kulkofsky (Culture) Findings and SUPPORT

• Collectivistic Culture = Personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in forming FBM

  • Focusing on own experiences is de-emphasized in China

    • Less rehearsal of triggering event compared with other countries

• National importances were of equal importance to FBM formation across cultures

OVERALL Culture (cultural dimensions) may have an impact on the formation of FBM

Loftus (Mall) Aim

Determine if false memories of autobiographical events can be created thru power of suggestion

Loftus (Mall) Procedure

Before study: Family member contacted to get info about participants childhood

• Participants filled out questionnaire in mail with 4 memories they were asked to write about, mailed back

• 3/4 memories was real, one fake "getting lost in mall" with info given by family member

• Participants told if they didn't remember events to write I don't remember.

• Interviewed 2x within a month, asked to recall everything, and rate clarity and confidence

• Debriefed and guessed which was false memory

Loftus (Mall) Findings and SUPPORT

• In the questionnaire 30% of participants recalled or partially recalled false memory

• After the first interview, 25% participants recalled the false memory (stayed same for 2nd interview)

• In debriefing, 80% chose which was false memory correctly

  • Clarity and confidence of memory less ranked

  • Wrote abt it less on the questionnaire

Overall - People can be lead to believe events happened to them through power of suggestion

Cox (Cards) Aim

To see if the Wason Selection Task is completed with more accuracy if the task is made more personally relevant

Cox (Cards) Procedure

Large group of undergrad Psych students

• Randomly assigned to 6 groups to “counterbalance” the experiment

  • (Testing each task in different orders)

1. Each group was given a workbook with 3 problems

2. Asked which cards they need to turn over to prove if the given statement is true:

   • Abstract Task - If A on one side, 3 on the other

   • Intermediate Task -  If person wears blue, must be over 19

   • Memory Cueing Task - If person drinks beer, must be over 18

Cox (Cards) Findings and SUPPORT

• Abstract task: Less than 5% solved the task correctly. Often just chose cards that confirmed the rule (showing confirmation bias).

• Intermediate task: Approx 40% solved the task correctly.

• Memory cueing task: Approx 60% solved the task correctly

• Order effects also influenced accuracy

People tend to use System 1 first to solve problems

• Rely on intuition rather than problem solving

  ⭐ Supports the theory that the more abstract and less relevant the task, the more likely that cognitive biases would be used to solve the problem (resulting in less accuracy)

Oppenheimer (Fonts) Aim

To investigate if system 2 processing can be activated by making reading a question difficult (“disfluency” is created).

Oppenheimer (Fonts) Procedure

Small group of university students

Completed 3 questions: Cognitive Reflection Task (CRT)

• Quiz designed to use System 1, and give quick incorrect responses

• If the response is correct, assumed System 2 is used

Two Groups:

• Fluent function (quiz in easy to read font)

• Disfluent condition (quiz in difficult to read font)

Oppenheimer (Fonts) Findings and SUPPORTS

Disfluent performed better, as only 35% answered at least 1 question incorrectly, and 90% did in fluent condition.

CRT hard to read then System 2 engaged

Overall disfluency engages rational thinking

Chou (Facebook) Aim

To determine whether Facebook users perceive others as happier and leading a better life (activating availability heuristic)

Chou (Facebook) Procedure

Undergraduate students:

• Took a questionnaire that asked how much participants agreed with three statements on a scale from 1-10

  • 1) Many of my friends have a better life than me

  • 2) Many of my friends are happier than me and

  • 3) Life is fair

Questionnaire also included Facebook use, religion, gender, relationship status, social life

Use questions included ‘‘years of using Facebook’’ and ‘‘number of hours spent on Facebook each week.’’

Chou (Facebook) Findings and SUPPORT

Participants who used Facebook longer were more likely to believe that others were happier, had a better life and that life was unfair.

The more time they were using Facebook, the more they perceived others as happier.

Participants who had more friends on Facebook were more likely to perceive others as happier and see life as unfair.

Participants who spend more time with their friends in person are more likely to see life as fair.

Supports the argument that Facebook use affects people’s perceptions of others

Demonstrates availability heuristic (tendency to base judgement on what is most easily recalled)