Psychology of Learning (ch. 1,2,3,4)

Learning Research Perspectives: Behaviorists

Focus on measuring the impact of our environment on our behavior.

Learning Research Perspectives: Cognitivists

Focus on understanding the internal processes that allow us to learn effectively.

Learning Research Perspectives: Social/Contextual Theorists

Focus on how we learn from observing and imitating others as well as how knowledge is passed down through cultures.

What even is learning?

Changes to the frequency, speed, intensity, and complexity of an existing behavior. BUT also performing a new behavior and responding differently to a particular stimulus.

Psychologists that research learning study it in what two ways…

Objectively and Systematically

To study objectively is to use…

Quantitative data, Qualitative data, and Mixed methods

Quantitative Data

Specific measurements or numbers

Qualitative Data

Complex verbal/behavioral performance inspected and judged for the presence/absence of content or skills.

Mixed Methods

Combo of some kids of both, a lot use both.

To study systematically is to use…

Basic research, and Applied research

Basic Research

Focus on identifying and understanding mechanisms of learning; controlled conditions and tasks.

Applied Research

Investigates learning in "real world" contexts and on more authentic tasks.

Principles of Learning

Identify certain factors that influence learning and describe the specific effects these factors have.

Laws

Principles that are observed consistently over a long period of time, across humans and animals

Theories of Learning

Provide info about underlying mechanism involved in learning.

Difference between Principles of learning and Theories of learning?

Principles tell us WHAT factors are important for learning; Theories tell us WHY factors are important for learning.

Similarities between Principles of learning and Theories of learning?

Both involve LOTS of research, and attempt to summarize a large amount of data.

Do theories constantly change?

Yes, with new findings and evidence are found, theories will change.

Social Cognitive Theory

People learn what they pay attention to, so a reward increases learning when it makes people pay attention to the info to be learned.

What are the three brains?

Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Forebrain

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Acts as our messenger system, carries info from our receptor cells to the central nervous system. Made up of 3 basic building blocks: Neurons, Synapses, Glial Cells.

Features of Neurons

Communication WITHIN a neuron is electrical; Communication BETWEEN neurons is chemical.

Synapses

Gap between neurons, when an electric impulse reaches this gap a neurotransmitter is released.

Neurons

Nerve cells that provide the means through which our brains and bodies transmit and coordinate information.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming info from receptor cells to interneurons (Part of PNS).

Interneurons

Neurons that integrate and interpret input from multiple locations then transmits the result of this integration to motor neurons (Part of CNS).

Motor Neurons

Neurons that send messages about how to respond to the appropriate parts of the body (Part of PNS).

Myelin Sheath

Enhance efficiency of neurons and overall brain communication, helps neuron transmit info up to 3000 times faster.

White Matter

Parts of the brain where myelin predominates.

Gray Matter

Uncoated parts of brain.

Glial Cells

Provide structure and support for neurons.

Hindbrain

Basic physiological processes (breathing, swallowing, sleeping, regulating heartbeat, etc). Referred to as "lizard brain". Back of brain, part of the brain where spinal cord enters the skull.

Midbrain

Supports vision/hearing, regulates sleeping/wakefulness, role in attention/consciousness. In the middle of the brain.

Forebrain

Handles complex activities, notable parts: Limbic system (cluster of structures important for learning, memory, emotion, motivation), Thalamus (receives incoming sensory info and sends it on; plays role in arousal, attention, and fear), Cerebral cortex (rests on top of forebrain structures and is divided into 4 parts) On top, wraps around midbrain.

Cerebral Cortex

Broken into 4 parts: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe.

Pariental Lobe

Receives and interprets somatosensory info (temp, pressure, texture, pain) and also involved in attention processing wrod sounds, spatial thinking.

Occipital Lobe

Interpreting and remembering visual information.

Temporal Lobe

Interpret and remember complex auditory information, also important for long-term memory of general concepts. Helps summarize info for later.

Frontal Lobe

Language, reasoning, problem-solving, sustained attention, self-regulation. Helps with the ability to plan ahead, helps us do things we need to do but don't wanna do.

Left Hemisphere Functions

Controls right side of body, language production and comprehension, reading and math, more likely to handle details.

Right Hemisphere Functions

Controls left side of the body, visual and spatial processing, recognizing faces, generally better for synthesizing different types of information into an overall whole.

What happens by the 5th week after conception?

The brain development begins, a tiny tube develops, and 3 chambers appear (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain).

What happens between the 5th and 20th week after conception?

Neurons are reproducing at about 50,000-100,000 new cells per second, and most neurons are formed during this period.

What happens during the second trimester?

Neurons migrate towards specific locations, they try to connect dendrites and axons to neighbors. Successful connections take on specific functions, the rest die off (around half).

What happens if neurons send a signal and get nothing back from other neurons?

It retracts its axons to stop trying to connect to something not there.

What happens to our brain between brith and age 3?

Brain mass triples in size.

What processes are driving this rapid development from birth to age 3?

Synaptogenesis, Differentiation, Synaptic pruning, Myelination.

Synaptogenesis

Post-birth process where synapse formation increases dramatically (neurons sprouting new dendrites), and this process continues for different lengths of time in different part of the brain.

Differentiation

Process of neurons taking on specific functions as they form synapses with one another.

Synaptic Pruning

The disintegration of irrelevant/useless synapses, largely determined by the chemicals a neuron receives when info is successfully delivered to another neuron (trophic factors). If neuron does not hear back when it sends a signal, it pulls axon back.

Myelination

Process where glial cells coat axons with myelin.

Puberty

Next phase of brain development is kicked off by this. New synapses start to appear, changes in hormone level, affects ability to control impulses and make decisions based off of logic. Frontal lobe also starts to develop as teenager.

Adolescence and Twenties

Frontal lobe continues to mature, maturation in areas like attention, planning, impulse control.

Adulthood

Brain development NEVER stops, white matter continues to increase well into our 40s and 50s.

Experience-expectant Skills

Skills that emerge because humans have previously encountered them in nearly every environment, though our brain fine-tunes them depending on actual experience.

Critical/Sensitive Periods

Limited age ranges in which particular kinds of environmental stimuli have a greater impact on neurological development. (visual perception, and language can be examples)

Experience-dependent Skills

Skills that emerge only when the environmental conditions nurture them, can presumably be acquired at any age (not baked into our biology, like driving).

Experience-dependent Plasticity

Our brains ability to strengthen weak synapses or form new ones in order to learn something new or adapt to a new environment (ex. older person learning to use smart phone).

Four main psychological sources of learning

The strengthening/weakening of existing synapses, neurogenesis, astrocytes, and consolidation.

Neurogensis

Formation of new neurons.

Astrocytes

Cells that seem to have considerable control over what neurons do and how well they communicate with each other.

Consolidation

The process of making new information stronger so it can be retained and remembered later; two phases (synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation).

Synaptic Consolidation

The strengthening of synapses relevant to the new information due to neurotransmitters, occurs a few minutes to hours after learning new info (helps with holding info short term).

Systems Consolidation

When the networks containing the relevant neurons structurally reorganize themselves to make the info more permanent, occurs days to years after learning (longer term).

Retrograde Amnesia

Not being able to remember events that occurred a few days ago or weeks before a head trauma.

Neuropsychology

Case studies of people with brain injuries and other pathological conditions.

Neuroimaging

Taking picture/video of blood flow or metabolism rates in various parts of the brain while at rest or while doing some task. Helps show what brain is doing during certain tasks.

Pavlovs Discovery

Made on accident, the dog was salivating before the food came out, classical conditioning.

Before conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -> Unconditioned response (UCR)

Neutral stimulus (NS) -> No response

Conditioning steps

Neutral stimulus (NS) + Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -> Unconditioned response (UCR) *10 or however many

Becomes Conditioned stimulus (CS) -> Conditioned response (CR)

Classical conditioning

Learning can occur from the simultaneous presentation of two stimuli in one's environment.

Examples of classical conditioning in humans

1. Food aversion after stomach bug (Throwing up broccoli and cheese that one time and now it makes me sick to think about it) 2. Certain phobias and fears (watching IT makes you scared of clowns) 3. Advertisements make you like the product (Limu Emu and Doug).

Contingency

The potential conditioned stimulus (CS) must occur ONLY when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is likely to follow.

Extinction

The disappearance of a conditioned response (CR). Happens when CS is no longer predictive of UNS.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of the conditioned response (CR) after it had previously been extinguished. More likely to happen after extinction than a rest period.

Generalization

When learners respond to other stimuli in the same way they respond to a conditioned stimulus (littles Albert scared of white rabbits along with white rats).

Discrimination

When one stimulus (CS+) is presented with the unconditioned stimulus, and another stimulus (CS-) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Higher-oder thinking

after a CS has been conditioned, adding a new NS (neutral stimulus) can quickly cause the CR to respond to that as well (ex. dog not only reacting to food bowl sound but the sound of the pantry door to the dog food opening).

Counterconditioning

Essentially replacing an unwanted stimulus-response pairing with a more powerful stimulus-response pairing that you do want.

Reinforcement

Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthen (behavior will happen more).

Punishment

Responses to a situation that are followed by discomfort as weakened (behavior will happen less).

Operant conditioning

A response that is followed by a reinforcer is likely strengthened, therefor more likely to occur again.

Reinforcer

A consequence (not necessarily bad), stimulus, or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows. Different from a reward.

Conditions for operant conditioning

1. reinforcer should follow response immediately 2. Reinforcer should be contingent on the response

Primary reinforcer

satisfies built-in (biology based) need or desire. May satisfy physiological well-being (food, water, warmth) or satisfy social Cohesiveness (physical affection, smiles).

Secondary reinforcer

A previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing through repeated association with another reinforcer (good grades, praise, candy).

Positive reinforcement

Presentation of stimulus after the response; either extrinsic or intrinsic.

Intrinsic reinforcement

internal, feeling successful after finishing a puzzle, feeling pride after finishing race.

Material reinforcers

An actual object, extrinsic reinforcer.

Token reinforcer

A small, insignificant item that has a learner can accumulate and eventually use to "purchase" desired objects or privileges (like rock-bucks).

Social reinforcer

a gesture or sign that one person gives another (smile or thumbs-up).

Positive feedback

Feedback on what a learner has learned and gives them guidance for improvement.

Activity reinforcers

An opportunity to engage in a favorite activity; when a high-frequency response is contingent on first making a low-frequency response, the high-frequency response will increase the frequency of the low-frequency response.

High-frequency response

A response that a learner enjoys doing.

Low-frequency response

A response the learner does not enjoy doing.

Negative reinforcement

Increases a response through the removal of a stimulus, usually an aversive or unpleasant one (NOT the same as punishment).

Superstitious behavior

Happens when the learner believes the response and reinforcement are related when they are not (wearing a lucky shirt on test days).