MCAT Psychology High Yield Content

Cerebral cortex

Forebrain, known as the cerebrum; outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres; contains 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

Frontal Lobe

Forebrain; executive function, impulse control, long-term planning (prefrontal cortex), motor function (primary motor cortex), and speech production

Broca's area

Forebrain; important for speech production, found in the frontal lobe

Parietal Lobe

Forebrain; sensation of touch, pressure, temperature and pain (somatosensory cortex); spatial processing, orientation, and manipulation

somatosensory cortex

Forebrain; found in the parietal lobe, important for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain sensation

Occipital lobe

Forebrain; visual processing

temporal lobe

Forebrain; sound processing (auditory complex), speech perception (Wernicke's area), memory, and emotion (limbic system)

Wernicke's area

Forebrain; found in the temporal lobe; important for speech perception

Basal ganglia

Forebrain; coordinates muscle movement from cortex to the rest of the brain and spinal cord; smooth movements and maintain posture stability

limbic system

Forebrain; primarily associated with emotion and memory; includes the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus

Septal nuclei

Forebrain; part of the limbic system; feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction

Amygdala

Forebrain; part of the limbic system, controls fear and aggression

Hippocampus

Forebrain; part of the limbic system; consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through the fornix

Thalamus

Forebrain; sensory relay station for all incoming senses EXCEPT smell; sorts, and transmits to proper areas of the cortex

Hypothalamus

Forebrain; active during high-arousal, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior; controls endocrine functions and ANS; maintains homeostasis

hypophyseal portal system

connects hypothalamus to anterior pituitary; maintains coordination of the endocrine system

Hindbrain

"brain stem"; contains the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation

Cerebellum

part of the hindbrain; controls motor movement, and balance

medulla oblongata

part of the hindbrain; controls breathing, reflex control, and maintains upright posture

reticular formation

part of the hindbrain; controls normal behavior of walking, sleeping, waking, and other reflexes; degenerative part of this section is related to Parkinson's Disease

Midbrain

contains the inferior and superior colliculli

inferior colliculli

important midbrain nucleus that is involved in the auditory pathway

superior colliculli

important midbrain nucleus that is involved in the visual pathway, receiving information from the eye

Function of midbrain

reception of sensory and motor information; generally necessary for survival

Forebrain

contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex

Function of hindbrain

controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, and general arousal (waking and sleeping); generally necessary for survival

Corpus Callosum

bundle of axons that connects the right and left hemispheres

Optic Chiasm

point in visual nerve system where nasal fibers (carrying temporal vision) cross and the temporal fibers (carrying nasal vision) pass directly though to the optic tract

Bitemporal Hemianopsia: Lesion of Optic Chaism would cause would knock out the _____ fibers and the person would lose the ______ vision

Nasal fibers

Temporal vision

Nasal fibers

carry information from the temporal field of vision (Remember: visual image crosses over and hits opposite side of retina)

Temporal Fibers

carry information from the nasal field of vision (Remember: visual image crosses over and hits opposite side of retina)

Right optic tract

Carries information from the right temporal fibers and the left nasal fibers (temporal visual field of left eye) and right temporal fibers (nasal visual field of right eye); in total contains left visual field from each eye

Lesion of Right optic tract

Person would lose vision from the left visual field

Left Optic tract

Carries information from the left temporal fiber (nasal visual field of left eye) and the right nasal fiber (temporal visual field of right eye); in total contains right visual field from each eye

Lesion of Left Optic tract

Person would lose vision of the right visual field

Lesion of occiptal lobe

would cause loss of vision of the opposite visual field, but maintain a part of the central visual field

Rods

photoreceptors found at the retina; more commonly found throughout retina except at the fovea; recieve B and W imaging

Cons

photoreceptors found at the retina; spread throughout but concentrated at the fovea; contail R, G, or B rhodopsins that perceive color

Bipolar cells

Direct input from the photoreceptors; synapse with ganglion cells; contain 2 types of insulator cells: horizontal and amacrine

Series of Visual Processing

visual input --> focused on retina --> transformed to electrical signal by photoreceptors--> travels to optic nerve--> optic chiasm swaps visual fields to opposite hemispheres--> processed in the lateral genicualte nuclceus (LGN)--> visual radiation-->visual cortex and superior colliculus

Parallel Processing

identify characteristics, apply them to memory, and the recall a word to describe the object we see later on

Feature Detection Theory

recognizes features, identify desired object in visual field, filter by features

Signal detection theory

effects of nonsensory factors, such as experiences, motives, and expectations on perception of stimuli

Response Bias

examined using signal detection experiments with four possible outcomes: hits, misses, false alarms, and correct negatives

Operant Condtioning

BF Skinner; associative learning in which the frequency of a behavior is modified using reinforcements or punishments

Positive Punishment

added stimulus to decrease behavior (ex. shock)

Positive Reinforcement

added stimulus to increase behavior (ex. allowance)

Negative Punishment

removed stimulus to decrease behavior (ex. take away cell phone when in trouble)

Negative Reinforcement

removed stimulus to increase behavior (ex. mom stops yelling when child decides to do a chore)

Reinforcement Schedule Types

Ratios: always produce desired behavior the quickest

Intervals: slower to produce the desired behavior

Variable: quicker to develop desired behavior; resistant to extinction

Fixed: slower to develop desired behavior

Best: Variable-ratio: quick to form, not easily extinct

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement; deliver reinforcement at every nth response (ex. mouse must press button 5 times to receive pellet)

Variable-ratio Schedule

Reinforcement; deliver reinforcement after an average nth response, but not necessarily the nth time (ex. mouse must press button 5 times, then 6 times, then 4 times to receive pellets)

Quickest to form and least to likely to fade behavior

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement; deliver reinforcement at a certain interval if behavior is completed in that interval (ex. mouse presses button once during a 5 minute interval and will receive a pellet)

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement; deliver reinforcement at a average interval if behavior is completed, but not necessarily the same time interval (ex. mouse will press it once in a minute interval, then it may be a 30 sec interval, then a 45 second interval, to receive the pellet)

Classical Conditioning

associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus, forming the conditioned response; (exp. Pavlov's Dogs)

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

normal stimulus that is not learned; innate (ex. the food stimulates hunger)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus becomes associated with the UCS (ex. the bell becomes associated with the food)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

normal response to stimulus, innate response (ex. the sight of food causes salivation)

Conditioned Response (CR)

the conditioned stimulus produces the same effect of the UCS forming the response (ex. ringing the bell causes salivation)

Broca's Aphasia

hard to produce words in correct orders; difficulty in speech production; nonfluent aphasia

Wernicke's aphasia

fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension

Conduction aphasia

inability to repeat words despite intac speech generation and comprehension (damage of the arcuate fasciculus that connects Werknicke's to Broca's Region)

Language Development in Child

1. Babbling (9-12 mo.)

2. 1 word/month (12-18 mo.)

3. Explosion of words (18-20 mo.)

4. 3+ word sentences (2-3 yrs)

5. most language rules are mastered (5 yrs)

Nativist Language Acquisition Theory

we have an innate capactiy for language; use a brain region called "Language Acquisition Device" (LAD); the sensitive period of language development occurs before puberty

Learning (Behavioral)Language Acquisition Theory

learn language by operant conditioning; reinforcement of sounds/words

Social Interactionist Language Theory

mix of biological and social processes forms language

Whorfian Hypothesis

Language affects how we think; cultural influenences

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

stimulus results first and results in physiological arousal, which causes a secondary response when emotion is labeled (without feedback from visceral organs or vagus nerve, emotion can not be experienced)

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Cognitive (emotion) and physiological stimuli occur simultaneously, and thus result in an action

Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotion

"two factor" theory; both the arousal and the labeling of the arousal (cognitive appraisal) based on the environment elicits an emotion; use environment to help determine what emotion should be expressed

7 Universal Emotion

Paul Eckman continued off of Darwin ideas; innate emotions elicited by the same facial expressions: happy, sad, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger

Storage of emotion

explicit memories-->medial temporary--> memory about emotion

implicit memory-->amygdala--> emotional memory

Limbic System

amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus

Amygdala in emotional processing

signals cortex with stimuli related to attention and emotion; processes environment, external cues, and surroundings; associated with fear and interpretation of facial expressions

Thalamus in emotional processing

preliminary sensory processing; routes signal to proper place

hypothalamus in emotional processing

brain structure that releases of NT that modulate emotion; mood and arousal

Prefrontal cortex in emotional processing

planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions; Left-->positve emotions, Right-->negative emotions

Dorsal prefrontal cortex in emotional processing

attention and cognition

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex in emotional processing

decision making and emotional contral

Primary appraisal of stress (Stage 1)

initial evaluation of associated threat; if threat is revealed it can lead to a secondary appraisal; judged as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful

Secondary appraisal of stress (Stage 2)

evaluation in organism can cope with the stress;

+ harm: damage caused by event

+challenge: overcome and possible benefit from event

+threat: potential of future damage caused by event

Distress

stressor causing unpleasant feelings

Eustress

stressor causing positive feelings; adapt or challenge our lifestyle

General Adaption Syndrome to Stress

1. Alarm Stage: initial reaction, signaled by SNS, ACTH is released from pituitary to stimulate release of cortisol by the adrenal gland

2. Resistance: release of hormones allows sympathetic nervous system to fight stressor

3. Exhaustion: body can no longer maintian SNS activity; leads to panic and breakdown

Self-discrepancy theory

+actual-self: the way we see ourselves as we are

+ ideal self: who we would like to be

+ ought self: who others think we should be

*the closer they are, the higher self esteem

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning

Preconventional (preadolescence), Conventional (adolescence to adult), and Post-conventional (adult life, if at all)

Preconventional Morality

Kohlberg

consequences of moral choices

1. Obedience: avoid punishment

2. Self-interest: gaining rewards ("you scratch my back, i'll scratch yours")

Conventional Morality

Kohlberg

see themselves in relation to others

3. Conformity: seek approval of others

4. Law and Order: maintain social order in the highest regard

Postconventional Morality

Kohlberg

occur when morals conflict with laws

5. Social contract: moral rules as conventions, designed to achieve a greater good; focused on individual rights

6. Universal Human Ethics: reasons decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles

Vygotsky's view of Cultural and Biosocial Developlment

+Cognitive development is based on cultural limits

+Zone of proximal development: skills and abilities in the process of development

+More knowledgeable other help child achieve these skills

Psychosexual Development of Identity

Freud's 5 Stages

1. Oral Stage: 0-1 year

2. Anal Stage: 1-3 years

3. Phallic/Oedipal Stage: 3-5 years

4. Latency Stage: 5 years-Puberty

5. Genital: after puberty to adulthood

Oral Stage

0-1 year; fixated around mouth

Adult: exhibits excessive dependency

Anal Stage

1-3 years; fixated around anus

gratification of potty-training

Adult: excessive orderliness (anal-retentive) or sloppiness

Phallic/Oedipal Stage

3-5 years: fixated around opp. sex parent

Boys: envy father, castration anxiety, resolve by having guilty feelings, and desire to be like father, est. sexual identity and internalize moral values

Girls: Electra conflict; penis envy

-de-eroticize to go to next stage

Latency Stage

5 years to puberty: redirect libidal energy

Genital Stage

Puberty to adulthood: enter healthy heterosexual relationships if fixation of other stages has been resolved

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Crisis involved from needs and social demands; resolving conflicts

1. trust vs. mistrust (0-1 yr)

2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 yr)

3. initiative vs. guilt (3-6 yr)

4. industry vs. inferiority (6-12 yr)

5. identity vs. role confusion (12-20 yr)

6. intimacy vs. isolation (20-40 yr)

7. generativity vs. stagnation (40-65 yr)

8. integrity vs. despair (65 yr +)

Trust vs. mistrust

0-1 year: Can I trust the world?

+ trust environment or self

- suspicious of world

Autonomy vs. shame & doubt

1-3 years: Is it okay to be me?

+ have control over world, have choices and self restraint

- sense of doubt and external locus of control

Initiative vs. Guilt

3-6 years: Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?

+ sense or purpose, initiate activities, enjoy accomplishment

- fear of punishment, self-restriction, or shows out