Biological Molecules and Human Body Systems Overview

Carbohydrate Monomer

Monosaccharides

Carbohydrate Polymer

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates Structure

made of CHO in 1:2:1 ratio, usually pentagon/hexagon shape

Carbohydrates Functions

Main energy use

Factors affecting Carbohydrates rates

metabolism, physical activity

Lipids Monomer

Glycerol and fatty acids

Lipids Polymer

Phospholipids and triglycerides

Lipids Structure

glycerol backbone, fatty acid tails, phosphate group

Lipids Functions

Short-term energy, make up cell membrane (phospholipids)

Factors affecting Lipids rates

Health conditions, genetic factors, environmental conditions

Proteins Monomer

Amino acid

Proteins Polymer

Polypeptide

Proteins Structure

hydrogen, amino group, side chain, acid group

Proteins Functions

Chemical catalysts (enzymes), hormones, structural parts

Factors affecting Proteins rates

transcription/translation rates, ribosomes, environmental conditions (heat/pH)

Nucleic acids Monomer

Nucleotide

Nucleic acids Polymer

Nucleic acid

Nucleic acids Structure

Double helix shape - nitrogen base, sugar, phosphate backbone

Nucleic acids Functions

Code for proteins

Factors affecting Nucleic acids rates

temperature, pH, concentration, presence of certain proteins/enzymes

Nucleus

organelle in a cell where DNA is stored

Ribosomes

synthesize proteins

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell; where cellular respiration occurs

Chloroplasts

In plant cells only - where photosynthesis occurs

Passive transport

from high to low concentration; does not require energy

Diffusion

movement of molecules across a membrane

Osmosis

movement of water across a semi permeable membrane from high to low concentration

Hypotonic

When solute concentration is higher outside than inside the cell, water rushes in and cell swells

Hypertonic

Solute concentration is lower outside than inside the cell, water rushes out and cell shrivels

Isotonic

solute concentration is equal inside and outside the cell

Active transport

From low to high concentration; requires energy

Sodium pump

protein that moves sodium and K+ ions across the cell membrane

Endocytosis

When the cell membrane folds inwards to consume a material from outside the cell

Exocytosis

When the cell releases waste products out of the cell

Prophase

chromatin condenses

Metaphase

chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane (middle) of the cell

Anaphase

centromeres divide, chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell

Telophase/Cytokinesis

2 nuclei are formed, cytoplasm divides - in plants, cell plate forms

Interphase

Phase that comes before Mitosis/Meiosis in the cell cycle; it is a phase of cell growth and DNA replication

G1

Gap 1: cell grows, synthesizes proteins

S phase

DNA replicates

G2

Cell undergoes further growth and checks for DNA replication errors

Haploid

a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes (23)

Diploid

a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent (46)

Cytokinesis

occurs alongside mitosis and meiosis

Cancer

disease caused by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells

Tumor growth

tumors are formed by the rapid growth of cells

Smooth muscle

involuntary control, most can function without nervous stimulation, spindle shaped cells, not striated, found in stomach, blood vessels, and intestines

Skeletal muscle

attached to bones, many nuclei per cell, striated, voluntary control

Cardiac muscle

found only in the heart, involuntary control, have one or two nuclei

Actin

thin muscle filament

Myosin

thick muscle filament with attachments that help it connect to thin filament

Skin

outermost layer of somatic cells

Epidermis

outermost layer of skin, protective layer

Dermis

middle layer of skin between epidermis and hypodermis

Homeostasis

maintaining a balanced internal environment despite external factors

Mouth

contains teeth and tongue for mechanical digestion, along with salivary glands to help

Pharynx

the throat, provides a passageway for food to go to the esophagus and for air to go to the larynx

Epiglottis

covers trachea when food is swallowed

Esophagus

long tube that connects the mouth and pharynx to the stomach

Liver

produces bile for chemical digestion, filters toxins out of the blood

Gallbladder

stores bile for later use in the small intestine

Stomach

muscular organ where food is churned for mechanical digestion; hydrochloric acid is made there and so is pepsin

Pancreas

produces enzymes trypsin and lipase for chemical digestion

Large intestine

tube where water is absorbed and undigested waste is left

Small intestine

some chemical digestion occurs, most of the absorption of nutrients occurs.

Bile

Substance that is made by the liver and stored in the gallbladder until it is used by the small intestine in chemical digestion to spread apart fats and lipids.

Lactase

Enzyme that breaks down lactose.

Lipase

Enzyme that breaks down fats.

Trypsin

Enzyme that breaks down proteins, made in the stomach.

Amylase

Enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates.

Pepsin

Enzyme that breaks down proteins, made in the stomach.

Villi

Finger-like parts of the small intestine that provide surface area and help absorb nutrients.

Alveoli

Air sacs at the end of the bronchioles where gas exchange occurs.

Reactants in cellular respiration

O2 + Glucose.

Products of cellular respiration

Carbon dioxide + ATP energy + water.

Pineal gland

Secretes melatonin.

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain that controls the pituitary gland.

Posterior pituitary

Rear part of the master gland, secretes ADH to make kidneys reabsorb water and oxytocin to stimulate making of breast milk.

Anterior pituitary

Front part of master gland, produces growth hormone, prolactin, and many other hormones that control things in the brain and sex organs.

Parathyroid

Regulates metabolism, increases amount of calcium in the blood.

Thyroid

Produces T3 and T4 to regulate metabolism, produces calcitonin to build bone and store calcium.

Thymus

Where immune system T cells mature.

Adrenal glands

Secrete hormones that arouse the body in times of stress, sex hormones, and hormones to regulate sodium levels.

Testes

Produce testosterone, a male sex hormone.

Ovaries

Produce estrogen, a female sex hormone.

Fertilization

Union of two gametes to create zygote.

Kidneys

Bean-shaped organs where blood is filtered.

Bladder

Sac at the end of the excretory system where urine is stored temporarily.

Urine formation

Filtration, absorption, secretion.

Heart structure

4 chambers, aorta, pulmonary arteries/veins.

Deoxygenated blood flow

Blood into heart, to lungs to be oxygenated (veins).

Oxygenated blood flow

Flow from lungs to heart, to rest of body (arteries).

Brain

Organ that controls all body functions.

Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain - responsible for complex functions like thought, language, and voluntary movement.

Neuron structure

Dendrite for receiving information, cell body, axon for sending away, axon terminal at end, axon covered in myelin sheath.

Central nervous system

Primary control center; made up of brain/spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Network of nerves that flows through the rest of the body.

Sensory nervous system

Portion of nervous system responsible for processing input from the environment.

Motor nervous system

Peripheral structures/portion of nervous system responsible for motor functions.