General Science Lecture Notes Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering basic principles of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics based on General Science lecture notes.

General Science

A broad learning area that encompasses the fundamental principles and concepts of the natural world, exploring basic laws and processes governing living organisms, matter, energy, and their interactions.

Biology

The study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.

Chemistry

The study of matter and its properties, as well as how matter changes and interacts, exploring the composition, structure, and reactions of atoms and molecules.

Physics

The study of matter, energy, motion, and forces, seeking to understand the fundamental laws governing the universe from subatomic particles to space.

Inference

The process of drawing logical conclusions or making interpretations based on evidence and reasoning.

Cell

The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms where all life processes occur.

Mitochondria

The "powerhouses" of the cell responsible for cellular respiration and ATP (energy) production, featuring a double membrane with inner folds called cristae.

Ribosomes

Small, dense structures responsible for protein synthesis, either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A network of interconnected membranes; the Rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and modification, while the Smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Golgi Apparatus

A stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs called cisternae involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids.

Lysosomes

Small, membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Cell Wall

A rigid outer layer composed mainly of cellulose that provides structural support and protection to plant cells.

Chloroplasts

Membrane-bound organelles containing chlorophyll, the pigment responsible for capturing light energy for photosynthesis.

Tissues

Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function, such as muscle or xylem tissue.

Organs

Structures made up of different tissues working together to perform a specific set of functions, such as the heart or a leaf.

Cell Specialization

The process by which a cell becomes structurally modified to perform specific functions, such as a sperm cell developing a tail for swimming.

Epithelial tissue

A thin continuous layer of cells for lining and protection of internal and external surfaces in animals.

Xylem

Vascular tissue primarily responsible for the upward transport of water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the rest of the plant.

Phloem

Vascular tissue responsible for the transport of manufactured food (sugars) from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Digestion

The breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Peristalsis

Wave-like muscular contractions that transport food through the esophagus and other parts of the alimentary canal.

Chyme

The mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice found in the stomach.

Villi

Finger-like projections of the inner lining of the small intestine that significantly increase the surface area for absorption.

Osmosis

The movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential across a semi-permeable membrane.

Active Transport

A process requiring energy $(ATP)$ to move substances (like mineral ions) against their concentration gradient.

Transpiration

The loss of water vapor from the aerial parts of the plant, mainly leaves, through the stomata.

Cohesion-tension theory

The theory explaining the upward movement of water in xylem driven by transpiration pull, cohesion between water molecules, and adhesion to vessel walls.

Translocation

The movement of organic molecules (mainly sucrose) from the source (leaves) to the sink (roots, fruits, etc.) in the phloem.

Respiration

The fundamental biological process by which living organisms release energy from the breakdown of organic food substances like glucose.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of the cell used to power metabolic activities like muscle contraction and active transport.

Aerobic Respiration

A type of respiration that requires oxygen to break down glucose completely into carbon dioxide, water, and a large amount of ATP, following the equation: $C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + 6O_{2} \rightarrow 6CO_{2} + 6H_{2}O + Energy (ATP)$.

Anaerobic Respiration

A type of respiration that does not require oxygen, yielding a smaller amount of ATP and producing products like lactic acid or ethanol.

Oxygen Debt

The extra oxygen required after strenuous exercise to break down accumulated lactic acid into carbon dioxide and water.

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen consumed during respiration: $RQ = \frac{\text{Volume of } CO_{2} \text{ produced}}{\text{Volume of } O_{2} \text{ consumed}}$. For carbohydrates, this value is typically $1.0$.

Growth

An irreversible increase in size and dry mass due to cell division, elongation, and differentiation.

Seed Dormancy

A state in which viable seeds fail to germinate even under seemingly favorable environmental conditions, serving as an adaptive survival mechanism.

Scarification

The process of physically or chemically damaging a seed coat to make it permeable to water and oxygen to break dormancy.

Stratification

Exposing seeds to a period of cold, moist conditions to break physiological dormancy.

Epigeal Germination

A type of germination where the hypocotyl elongates and arches upwards, pulling the cotyledons above the ground.

Hypogeal Germination

A type of germination where the epicotyl elongates, and the cotyledons remain below the ground.

Primary Growth

Growth occurring at apical meristems resulting in an increase in the length of the plant stems and roots.

Secondary Growth

Growth occurring at lateral meristems (vascular and cork cambium) resulting in an increase in the girth or diameter of the plant.

Auxins

Plant hormones that promote cell elongation, apical dominance, and phototropism.

Abscisic Acid (ABA)

A plant hormone that inhibits growth, promotes seed dormancy, and induces stomatal closure during water stress.

Pathogen

A microorganism, such as certain bacteria, fungi, or viruses, that causes disease in its host.

Vector Transmission

The spread of a pathogen through a living organism, usually an arthropod like a mosquito or tick.

Antibiotics

Drugs used specifically to treat bacterial infections.

Periodic Table

A tabular arrangement of chemical elements ordered by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.

Period

A horizontal row in the periodic table; the period number corresponds to the highest principal energy level occupied by electrons.

Group

A vertical column in the periodic table; elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons and similar chemical properties.

Electron Affinity

The change in energy of a neutral atom when an electron is added to form a negative ion.

Valency

The number of electrons an atom of an element loses, gains, or shares to form a chemical bond.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, typically between metals and non-metals.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms, typically non-metals.

Hygroscopic Salts

Salts that absorb moisture from the air but do not dissolve in it to form a solution.

Deliquescent Salts

Salts that absorb enough water from the air to dissolve and form a saturated solution.

Efflorescent Salts

Hydrated salts that lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere when exposed to dry air.

Rate of a Chemical Reaction

A measure of how quickly reactants are consumed or products are formed over time.

Catalyst

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy without being permanently changed.

Haber Process

The industrial synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases using an iron catalyst, high pressure, and moderate temperature.

Moment of a Force

The turning effect of a force about a pivot, calculated as: $\tau = F \times d$, where $d$ is the perpendicular distance from the pivot.

Principle of Moments

The law stating that for a body in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same pivot.

Displacement

A vector quantity representing the change in position of an object in a straight line with a specified direction; SI unit is the metre ($m$).

Acceleration

The rate of change of velocity with time ($a = \frac{v - u}{t}$); SI unit is $m/s^{2}$.

Free Fall

The motion of an object under the influence of gravity alone, where acceleration due to gravity ($g$) is approximately $9.8\,m/s^{2}$.

Wavelength (λ)

The distance between two successive points on a wave that are in phase, such as from crest to crest.

Period (Wave)

The time taken ($T$) for one complete wave to pass a given point; SI unit is seconds ($s$).

Frequency (f)

The number of complete waves that pass a given point per unit time ($f = \frac{1}{T}$); SI unit is Hertz ($Hz$).

Transverse Waves

Waves where the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

Longitudinal Waves

Waves where the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation (e.g., sound waves).

Wave Equation

The formula relating wave velocity ($v$), frequency ($f$), and wavelength ($\lambda$): $v = f\lambda$.

Ferromagnetic materials

Substances that are strongly attracted by magnets, such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Magnetic Induction

The process by which magnets are made by placing ferromagnetic materials in a strong magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Induction

The process by which an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in a conductor exposed to a changing magnetic field.