PSYC121 Foundations of Psychology A Flashcards

Flashcards for reviewing key psychology concepts.

Psychology

Scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior.

Social Level of Analysis (Depression)

Loss of social support.

Behavioral Level of Analysis (Depression)

Withdrawal from activities.

Cognitive Level of Analysis (Depression)

Negative thinking patterns.

Physiological Level of Analysis (Depression)

Size/function of brain structures.

Neurochemical Level of Analysis (Depression)

Chemical messengers that influence mood.

Molecular Level of Analysis (Depression)

Variations in genes that predispose people.

Multiple Factors

Behavior is determined by multiple factors.

Non-Independent Factors

Factors influencing behavior are not always independent.

Reciprocal Determinism

Reciprocal determinism between the individual and the environment.

Individual Differences

Everyone responds differently.

Cultural Influence

Behavior is influenced by culture.

Science

The pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence

Two Attitudes of Science

Open mind and only accepting claims after rigorous research.

Authority Alone

Unwillingness to accept claims on the basis of authority alone.

Misconception 1 of theory

A theory explains one specific event.

Misconception 2 of theory

A theory is just an educated guess.

Principle 1 of Scientific Thinking

Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.

Principle 2 of Scientific Thinking

Can the claim be tested? Can we falsify the theory?

Occam’s Razor (Principle 3 of Scientific Thinking)

Does a simpler explanation fit the data just as well?

Correlation Vs. Causation (Principle 6 of Scientific Thinking)

Correlation does not equal causation.

Experimental Research

Involves the manipulation of one variable (independent variable) to test effects on another variable (dependent variable); helps ascertain causality.

Pseudoscience

Statements, beliefs, or practices claimed to be scientific but are incompatible with the scientific method.

Sign 1 of Pseudoscience

Overuse of ad hoc immunizing hypotheses.

Sign 3 of Pseudoscience

Over-reliance on anecdotes.

Sign 5 of Pseudoscience

Lack of review by other scholars (peer review) or replication by independent labs.

Sign 8 of Pseudoscience

Talk of 'proof' instead of 'evidence'.

Reason 1 to Believe in Pseudoscience

Need for meaning/hope.

Belief Perseverance

Hard to change people's beliefs.

Reason 3 to Believe in Pseudoscience

Confirmation bias: psychics.

Reason 4 to Believe in Pseudoscience

Placebo effect: homeopathy.

Cost 1 of Pseudoscience

Can lead people to forgo effective treatment (opportunity costs).

Cost 2 of Pseudoscience

Can lead to wasted resources testing silly claims.

Cost 4 of Pseudoscience

Encourages sloppy thinking.

Paradigm

Basic assumptions, ways of thinking, and methods of study commonly accepted by members of a discipline.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Conscious and unconscious forces interact to control thoughts and behaviors.

Goal of Therapy - Psychodynamic Perspective

The goal of therapy is to uncover repressed material.

Metaphor for Behaviorist View

Humans and other animals are mechanistic; stimulus and repsonse

Data Behaviorist Perspective

Quantitative empirical data that can be analyzed statistically and replicated.

Classical Conditioning

Pairing two things together; they become associated.

Operant Conditioning

A voluntary behavior being rewarded or punished.

Humanist Perspective

The subjective, conscious experiences of the individual is most important; focuses on free will and self-determination.

Metaphor for Cognitive Perspective

The mind is like a computer; information processing model.

Evolutionary Perspective

Human behaviors evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

Nature vs Nurture

Are we the way we are from human nature (the way we are born) or from our environment.

Determinism

All events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will.

Drive Theories

Applies the concept of homeostasis to behavior.

Incentive Theories

External stimuli pull people in certain directions; emphasis is on influences and downplays biological influences.

Evolutionary Theories

Motives of humans (and other species) is a product of evolution.

Ego Goal Orientation

Demonstration of superiority over others (winning).

Task Goal Orientation

Achieve task mastery/personal improvement.

Self-Determination Theory

Intrinsic - enjoyment; Extrinsic - rewards/avoid punishment.

Autonomy

Give choices - increases enjoyment.

Relatedness

Social interaction - increases enjoyment.

Emotion

Involves a subjective cognitive experience, bodily arousal, and characteristic overt experiences.

Emotion

Of limited duration and severe adaptive functions; involves cognitive appraisal, distinctive physiological or neurological patterns, and subjective feeling.

Cognitive Component of Emotion

Event appraisal: emotions require a stimulus (trigger) and can involve future and past events.

Affective Forecasting

Hedonic prediction of one's affect or emotional state in the future.

Physiological Component of Emotion

Emotions are accompanied by physiological arousal (heart rate, goosebumps).

The Polygraph (Lie Detector)

Records autonomic fluctuations during questioning; assumption is that a lie accompanies a physiological response; controversial.

6 Fundamental Emotions (Behavior Component)

Happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, and disgust.

Culture and Emotion

Cross-cultural similarities: considerable agreement across cultures in identification of emotions from facial expressions; variation in emotion display rules across cultures.

Gender and Emotion

Women: experience more intense emotional states, are better able to read emotional cues in others, and tend to express emotions more intensely and openly than men.

James-Lange Theory

Different patterns of arousal lead to the expression of different emotions.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus triggers brain activation; subjective feeling and physiological arousal are experienced simultaneously.

Schachter's Two-Factor Theory

Interpretation (appraisal) of physiological arousal leads to emotions; misattribution of arousal.

Criticism 3: The Humanist Method

Rejection of Laboratory Methods

Evolutionary Theories of Emotion

Human emotions are a product of evolution; emotions are innate reactions to certain stimuli and evolved before thought/consciousness; provide adaptive value.

Social Support

Various types of aid and emotional sustenance provided by members of one's social network; solid social support significantly decreases mortality.

Positive Psychology Movement

Subjective well-being, happiness, life satisfaction (often termed emotionality).

Hedonic Adaptation

People often adapt to their circumstances.

Controlling Emotions

Controlled breathing, muscle contractions, positive thinking/visualization, cognitive reappraisal, hypothetical thinking.

Stress

A type of response that arises when a stressor occurs, placing tension or discomfort on a particular individual.

Stress

Any circumstance that threatens or is perceived to threaten, one’s well-being and tax one’s coping abilities.

CMRT (Cognitive Relational Motivation Theory) of Emotion

Suggests we only react emotionally only when we there something in it for us.

Cognitive Appraisal

How we appraise (judge) a situation.

Stage 1. Primary Appraisal

Is the situation relevant and threatening? or irrelevant and harmless?

Stage 2. Secondary Appraisal

Evaluation of coping resources and options for dealing with stress.

Frustration

occurs as a result of goal thwarting (an emotional response to opposition related to anger, annoyance or disappointment).

Conflict

Related to indecision.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Two attractive goals: can only have one.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Two unattractive goals: lesser of two evils - have to make one of two shitty decisions.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects.

Pressure

Involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way.

Change

Any notable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Individuals experience both negative and positive emotions.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Negative emotions (typical stress reaction) narrow attention and allow us to be more fixated on what's happening; positive emotions broaden attention - increasing creativity and options for coping.

The Inverted U Hypothesis

Performance increases up to a point with emotional arousal.

Hormonal Response

Cortisol levels increase with stress (increases energy and inhibits tissue inflammation but weakens immune response).

Sex Differences - Stress

Men have greater stress responses than women (linked to estrogen).

Coping

Efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress; can be adaptive or maladaptive depending on coping scheme used.

Striking Out at Others Aggression

Aggression is any behavior intended to harm someone either physically or verbally.

Indulging Oneself

Stress can lead to reduced impulse control (eating, alcohol, smoking, gambling).

Goodness of Fit Hypothesis

Controllable stressor -> problem-focused coping is most effective; uncontrollable stressor -> emotion-focused coping is most effective.

Personality and Stress

Hostility is the most predictive trait associated with heart disease.

High Neuroticism

Interpret events as more stressful.

Helpful and Useful

Releasing Pent up emotions

REBT

Albert Ellis’ (1977) model of irrational beliefs; activating event, belief, consequences.

Humor and Stress

People get a sense of pride from the humor.

Health Psychology

Health psychology addresses how psychology affects people’s well-being, illness, and response when they get ill.