unit 7b test 5 steps to a 5

language

a flexible system of spoken, written, or signed symbols that enables us to communicate our thoughts and feelings

what does language transmit

knowledge from one generation to the next and expresses the history of a culture

what is language made up of

basic units called phonemes

phonemes

have no meaning only sounds

morphemes

the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes

grammar

system of rules that determines how sounds and words can be combined

syntax

set of rules that regulate the order in which words can be combined into grammatically sensible sentences in a language

example of syntax

The boy jumped happily doesnt sounds right but

Happily, the boy jumped.

semantics

the set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

sentences have

surface structure and deep structure

surface structure

the particular words and phrases

deep structure

the underlying meaning

functional fixedness

a failure to use an object in an unusual wat

example of functional fixedness

if people are carrying plastic tablecloths to a picnic area when it starts to rain, and they get soaked because they arent wearing raincoats and dont have umbrellas (they are experiencing ______)

using decision making heuristics when we problem solve can result in

errors in our judgements

what did amos tversky and daniel kahneman study

how and why people make illogical choices

normative studies ask

how we ought to make decisions and do not actually reflect how people make decisions

descriptive studies

look at how decisions are actually being made

availability heuristic

estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind

example of availability heuristic

many people who think nothing of taking a ride in a car are afraid to ride in an airplane because they think it is so dangerous (riding an airplane is much safer; we are far less likely to be injured or die as a result of rising in an airplane)

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut by which a new situation is judged by how well it matches a sterotypical model or a particular prototype

example of representative heuristic

thinking that because someone is wearing a suit and tie and carrying a briefcase, that they must be a lawyer, because they look like the stereotype of a lawyer.

framing

refers to the way a problem is posed

framing example

when a doctor presents a surgical procedure as having a "90% success rate" instead of a "10% failure rate

anchoring effect

this tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point

anchoring effect example

when you see a very expensive item first in a store, and then when you see a slightly cheaper item, it suddenly seems like a great deal, even if it's still relatively pricey, because the initial high price has set the "anchor" for your perception of value

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for and use information that supports preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas

confirmation bias example

police detectives with preconceived beliefs of a suspect choose to investigate evidence that supports his hunch, ignoring the other facts

belief perseverance

a tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited

belief bias

the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid

hindsight bias

a tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome of the event

overconfidence bias

is a tendency to underestimate the extent to which our judgements are erroneous

overconfidence bias example

when reading this section dealing with obstacles to problem solving and errors in decision making, we tend to think that we make these errors less often than most other people do

creativity

the ability to think about a problem or idea in new and unusual ways, to come up with unconventional solutions

convergent thinkers use

problem solving strategies directed toward one correct solution to a problem

divergent thinkers

produce many answers to the same question characteristic of creativity

divergent thinkers example

Wondering how many ways you can use a fork

convergent thinkers example

People use convergent thinking to make decisions by analyzing information, organizing it, and choosing the best solution.

brainstorm

to generate as many ideas as possible without critiquing them

psychometrician are involved in

test development in order to measure some construct or behavior that distinguishes people

psychometrics

the measurement of mental traits, abilities, and processes

psychological tests include

tests of abilities, interests, creativity, personality, and intelligence

a good tests is

standardized, reliable, and valid

What is standardization in test development?

A two part test development procedure.

What is the first part of the standardization process?

Establishing test norms from the test results of a large representative sample.

What is the second part of the standardization process?

Ensuring that the test is administered and scored uniformly for all test takers.

standardization example

a score from a standardized intelligence test from someone who took it in 1983 can be compared to a score from 2016.

norms

(standards used to compare scores of test takers) are scores established from the test results of the representative sample, which are then used as a standard for assessing the performances of subsequent test takers

reliable

we should obtain the same score no matter where, when, or how many times we take it

test retest method

a method of calculating reliability by repeating the same measure at two or more points in time

the closer the correlation coefficient is to 1.0,

the more reliable the test

what is a problem with the test retest method

the performance on the second test may be better because test takers are already familiar with the questions and test procedures

spilt half method

the score on one half of the test questions is correlated with the score on the other half of the questions to see if they are consistent

alternate form method (equivalent form method)

two different versions of a test on the same material are given to the same test takers, and the scores are correlated

alternate form method example

the SAT given on saturday is different from the SAT given on sunday in october; there are different questions on each form

interrater reliability

the extent to which two or more scorers evaluate the responses in the same way

what happens if a test is no valid

they are useless for measuring the particular construct or behavior

validity

the extent to which an instrument accurately measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict

psychological tests can be sorted into the three categories of performance tests...

observational tests and self report tests

performance test include

the SATs, AP tests, wechsler intelligence tests, standford binet intelligence tests, and most classroom tests, including finals, as well as computer tests and road tests for a drivers license

observational tests

a person is assessed on their performance in a specific context

observational test examples

employment interviews, and formal on the top observations for evaluation by supervisors

self report tests

require the test taker to describe his or her feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values, opinions, physical state, or mental state on surveys, questionnaires, or polls

MMPI - 2

exemplifies the self report test

performance tests can be divided into

speed tests and power tests

speed tests

generally include a large number of relatively easy items administered with strict time limits under which more test takers find it impossible to answer all questions

how can tests be categorized

into ability, interest, and personality tests

what are some ability tests

aptitude tests and achievement tests

aptitude tests

to predict a persons future performance or to assess the persons capacity to learn

achievement tests

designed to assess what a person has already learned

intelligence tests

Psychological tests that measure general mental ability.

who originated modern ability testing

francis galton

francis galton

measured psychomotor tasks to gauge intelligence, reasoning that people with excellent physical abilities are better adapted for survival and thus highly intelligent

james mckeen cattell

measured strength, reaction time, sensitivity to pain, and weight discrimination

mental tests

Tests of motor skills and sensory capacities; intelligence tests use more complex measures of mental abilities.

alfred binet

hired by the french government to identify children who would not benefit from a traditional school setting and those who would benefit from special education

theodore simon

help create the binet simon scale

mental age reflecting the...

age at which typical children give those same responses

william stern suggested

using the ratio of mental age to chronological age to determine the childs level of intelligence

lewis terman developed

the stanford binet intelligence scale reporting results as an IQ

IQ stands for

intelligence quotient

intelligence quotient found by

mental age divided by his or her chronological age multiplied by 100

david wechsler developed

another set of age based intelligence tests : the wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence, wechsler intelligence scale for children, wechsler agult intelligence scale

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

to be considered intellectual disabled

an individual must earn a score at or below 70 on an IQ test and also show difficulty adapting in everyday life

how is adaptive behaviro expressed

in conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills

how is severity determined

by adaptive functioning rather than an IQ score

mild intellectual disability can care for

themselves, can care for a home, achieve a sixth grade education, hold a job, get married, and become an adequate parent

charles spearman

tested a large number of people on a number of different types of mental tasks

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that indentifies closely related clusters of factors among groups of items by determining which variable have a high degree of correlation

g underlies

all intelligence

s underlies

less important or specialized abilities

louis thurstone identified...

seven distinct factors (primary mental abilities: inductive reasoning, word fluency, perceptual speed, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, numerical ability, and associative memory)

fluid intelliegnce

ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

who proposed the theory of multiple intelligence

howard gardner

theory of multiple intelligence

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

triarchic theory of intelligence

analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

threshold theory

a certain level of intelligence is necessary, but not sufficient for creative work