New 10/27 test

Epigenetics (definition)

Changes in gene expression caused by environment/lifestyle (e.g., diet, stress) without altering DNA sequence.

Epigenetics (key idea)

Your experiences can “turn genes up or down,” affecting phenotype across time.

Epigenetics (example)

Chronic stress → epigenetic changes that influence anxiety-related gene expression.

Epigenetics (pitfall)

It’s NOT DNA mutation; it’s gene expression regulation.

Sympathetic Nervous System (definition)

Autonomic branch that prepares the body for emergencies (“fight-or-flight”).

Sympathetic Nervous System (effects)

Increases heart rate, releases energy, dilates pupils, diverts blood to muscles.

Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic (contrast)

Sympathetic = Stress/Speed-Up; Parasympathetic = Peace/Restore.

Sympathetic Nervous System (pitfall)

Does NOT calm you down—that’s parasympathetic.

Endocrine System (definition)

Network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

Hormones vs Neurotransmitters (contrast)

Hormones travel via blood (slower, longer-lasting); neurotransmitters act across synapses (faster, localized).

Endocrine System (examples)

Testosterone, estrogen, cortisol, melatonin.

Endocrine System (pitfall)

It does NOT send electrical impulses; that’s the nervous system.

Absolute Threshold (definition)

Minimum stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time.

Absolute Threshold (example)

Dim light that’s just bright enough to be seen half the time.

Absolute Threshold vs JND (contrast)

Absolute threshold = detect or not; JND = smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Absolute Threshold (pitfall)

Not 100% detection—by definition it’s 50%.

Gestalt: Figure (definition)

What you focus on in your visual field (the object of attention).

Gestalt: Ground (definition)

Background information not in focal attention.

Gestalt: Reversibility (idea)

Ability to flip figure and ground (e.g., Rubin vase illusion).

Gestalt (pitfall)

Figure ≠ “the brightest area” automatically; it’s the focus of attention.

Rods (function)

Night vision, peripheral vision, brightness sensitivity (low light).

Cones (function)

Color vision and fine detail; concentrated in the fovea.

Rods vs Cones (quick compare)

Rods = dim/peripheral; Cones = color/clarity (central).

Rods (pitfall)

Rods are NOT for color—that’s cones.

Middle Ear Bones (names)

Malleus (hammer), Incus (anvil), Stapes (stirrup).

Middle Ear (location)

Between eardrum (tympanic membrane) and oval window.

Middle Ear Bones (mnemonic)

“MIS” = Malleus–Incus–Stapes.

Middle Ear (pitfall)

Cochlea is NOT a middle-ear bone (it’s inner ear).

REM Sleep (location in cycle)

Occurs at the end of a cycle during the second appearance of Stage 1 (REM/paradoxical sleep).

REM Sleep (features)

Vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, muscle atonia.

Sleep Cycle (young adult)

Stages: 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 3 → 2 → 1 (then REM), ~90 minutes per cycle.

REM Sleep (pitfall)

Not Stage 4; vivid dreams are linked to REM.

Overregularization (example)

“I goed,” “two mouses”—applying grammar rules too broadly.

Overregularization (meaning)

Evidence of internalized grammar rules (rule-based generation).

Chomsky’s Nativist Theory (link)

Overregularization supports innate language mechanisms (“hard-wired” capacity).

Overregularization (pitfall)

Not explained solely by imitation/reinforcement (Skinner).

Genetics

The science of heredity and how traits are passed from parents to offspring.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how psychological characteristics are inherited and influenced by genetics.

Epigenetics

How environment and lifestyle change gene expression without altering DNA.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; main processing center of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement and communication with skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions of internal organs; includes sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for stress or emergencies (“fight-or-flight”).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and restores homeostasis after stress (“rest and digest”).

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system that sends and receives electrical and chemical messages.

Dendrites

Branches of a neuron that receive incoming signals.

Axon

The long fiber of a neuron that carries outgoing electrical signals.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger that travels across the synapse between neurons (ex: serotonin).

Sensation

Biological process of detecting and receiving sensory information from the environment.

Perception

The brain’s interpretation and organization of sensory information into something meaningful.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time.

Transduction

The process of converting sensory stimuli into neural signals sent to the brain.

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on specific information while filtering out other input.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep with vivid dreams and rapid eye movement; also called paradoxical sleep.

Language

System of symbols used for communication of thoughts and ideas.

Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving strategy that guarantees a correct solution when used properly.