PAPER 1 SCAUB

Bandura et al. (1961) – Bobo Doll Study Themes

Social Cognitive Theory, Stereotyping

Bandura et al. (1961) Aim

To investigate whether children learn aggressive behavior through observational learning of adult models, and whether they are more likely to imitate a same-sex model.

Bandura et al. (1961) Procedure

Participants: 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls), aged 3–6 years, pre-rated for aggression.

Design: Matched-pairs, lab experiment with 3 conditions:

- Aggressive model

- Non-aggressive model

- Control group (no model)

Children watched either a male or female adult behave aggressively (e.g., hitting Bobo doll with a mallet and using aggressive language) or non-aggressively.

After mild frustration, children were observed in a playroom with both aggressive and non-aggressive toys for 20 minutes. Behavior was recorded through a one-way mirror.

Bandura et al. (1961) Findings

Children exposed to the aggressive model showed significantly more physical and verbal aggression than those in the other groups. Boys were more physically aggressive, especially when observing a male model. Girls showed more verbal aggression with a female model.

Bandura et al. (1961) Conclusion

Social Cognitive Theory: Children learn behaviors by observing and imitating others (observational learning).

Vicarious reinforcement explains why children may copy behaviors they’ve seen rewarded.Individual and the Group: Demonstrates how group membership (gender similarity) influences behavior.

Research Method: A controlled lab experiment allowed precise measurement of behavior.

Ethics: Involves deception and possible long-term impact from exposure to aggression.

Sherif et al. (1954) – Robbers Cave Study Themes

Social Identity Theory, Intergroup Conflict, Research Methods, Ethics

Sherif et al. (1954) Aim

To investigate the formation of group identity and the effects of intergroup conflict through competition among boys at a summer camp. and whether working toward superordinate goals can reduce intergroup hostility. Also tests Realistic Conflict Theory.

Sherif et al. (1954) Procedure

Participants: 22 white, middle-class boys (aged 11–12), none knew each other before. Conducted at a summer camp (Robbers Cave, Oklahoma), disguised as a regular camp. Boys randomly assigned to two groups: Eagles and Rattlers.

Stage 1 (In-group formation): Groups bonded through separate team activities, creating group

identity (names, flags).

Stage 2 (Conflict phase): Groups competed in games (e.g., tug of war), creating resource-based conflict. Verbal and physical aggression developed.

Stage 3 (Resolution): Researchers introduced superordinate goals (e.g., fixing a broken truck), requiring both groups to cooperate.

Data collected via observation, recordings, and participant feedback.

Sherif et al. (1954) Findings

Intergroup conflict quickly emerged during competition (e.g., name-calling, flag burning).

In-group bias: Boys rated their own group more positively.

Superordinate goals reduced hostility and improved intergroup relations.

Sherif et al. (1954) Conclusion

Social Identity Theory: Group membership fosters in-group bias and out-group hostility.

Realistic Conflict Theory: Conflict arises when groups compete for limited resources.

Human Relationships: Cooperation through shared goals reduces intergroup tension.

Ethical Considerations: Informed consent and deception were issues—boys didn’t know it was a study.

Martin & Halverson (1983) – Gender Schema and Memory Distortion Themes

Stereotype Formation, Effects of Stereotypes, Enculturation

Martin & Halverson (1983) Aim

To investigate how gender schemas influence memory and whether children distort memories to fit gender role stereotypes.

Martin & Halverson (1983) Procedure

Participants: 48 children (24 boys, 24 girls), aged 5–6, from local kindergartens. Assessed pre-existing gender stereotypes using the SERLI test. Shown 16 images of people doing either gender-consistent (e.g., girl with doll) or inconsistent (e.g., girl with toy gun) activities.

A week later, used probed recall on 24 pictures (16 original + 8 new) to test memory and response bias.

Children identified the gender of the person in the image and rated confidence in their answers.

Martin & Halverson (1983) Findings

Gender-consistent images were better remembered, especially for female actors.

Male stereotype-inconsistent images (e.g., boy doing “feminine” activity) were remembered better, suggesting stricter male role expectations.

Children distorted memories to match gender stereotypes (e.g., recalled girl with hammer as a boy).

Children were more confident and accurate in remembering stereotype-consistent information.

Martin & Halverson (1983) Conclusion

Schema Theory: Children encode and retrieve information based on gender schemas, distorting memory to fit existing stereotypes.

Stereotypes and Behavior: Memory distortion shows the effect of stereotypes on cognitive processes.

Cultural Influences / Enculturation: Gender roles learned culturally influence how information is processed.

Research Methods: Laboratory-based probed recall; ethical considerations include deception and testing children.

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) – Culture and Flashbulb Memory (FBM) Themes

Culture and Cognition, Flashbulb Memory, Cultural Dimensions, Research Methods, Ethics

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) Aim

To investigate the role of culture in the formation of flashbulb memories (FBMs) for personal and national events, comparing individualistic and collectivistic societies.

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) Procedure

• Sample: 274 adults from five countries (China, Germany, Turkey, UK, USA), all middle-class.

• Participants recalled public events (at least 1 year old), then answered a memory questionnaire with questions on:

• Where/when/how they learned about the event

• What they were doing, who they were with

• Also answered personal importance questions:

• National/international importance, personal significance, emotional intensity, and rehearsal (how often they’ve spoken about it)

• Translation control: Used back-translation for cultural accuracy across languages (e.g., Mandarin, German, Turkish).

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) Findings

• In individualistic cultures (e.g., USA, UK), personal importance and emotional intensity were strong predictors of FBM.

• In collectivistic cultures (e.g., China), personal emotion and involvement were less predictive of FBM formation.

• National importance was equally predictive across all cultures.

• Collectivistic values may reduce personal reflection and discussion, leading to fewer personal FBMs.

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) Conclusion

• Emotion & Cognition (FBM Theory): FBM is influenced by emotion, but the role of emotion varies by culture.

• Cultural Dimensions: Reflects individualism vs. collectivism—individualists form more FBMs due to personal reflection.• Cognitive Processes & Culture: Culture shapes encoding and rehearsal, influencing memory formation.

• Methodological Strength: Cross-cultural approach with strong control (e.g., back- translation) enhances validity.

Lueck & Wilson (2010) – Acculturative Stress in Asian Immigrants Themes

Acculturation, Assimilation, Cultural Influence on Mental Health, Research Methods, Ethics

Lueck & Wilson (2010) Aim

To investigate protective and risk factors that predict acculturative stress in a large, nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans in the USA.

Lueck & Wilson (2010) Procedure

• Sample: 2,095 Asian Americans

• 1,271 were first-generation immigrants (aged 18+ when they arrived in the US)

• Remainder were born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents

• Included various cultural backgrounds: Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese, etc.

• Method: Semi-structured interviews conducted in-person or online

• Interviewers matched participants’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds

• Randomly selected participants were contacted again to validate the data

• Interviews measured:

• Acculturative stress, language proficiency/preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status

Lueck & Wilson (2010) Findings

• 70% of participants showed acculturative stress

• Key protective and risk factors:

Bilingual language preference = lower stress (Enables support inside/outside cultural community)

English-only preference = higher stress (May cause disconnect from family/community)

Perceived discrimination and xenophobia = higher stress

Family cohesion (shared values and beliefs) = lower stress

Economic satisfaction and willingness to migrate again = lower stress

Lueck & Wilson (2010) Conclusion

• Acculturation Theory (Berry): Integration (bicultural identity) leads to less stress; assimilation may increase stress when cultural ties are lost.

• Cultural Influence on Behavior: Culture shapes how immigrants experience and cope with stress.

• Sociocultural Factors: Family support, community belonging, and discrimination all significantly affect well-being during acculturation.

• Research Methods: Semi-structured interviews allow rich, culturally sensitive insights into personal experiences.

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

A theory that explains how individuals derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to, leading to in-group favouritism and out-group discrimination. It includes social categorization, social identification, and social comparison.

In-group

A group an individual identifies with

Out-group

A group an individual does not identify with and may even oppose

Social Comparison

Evaluating one’s group in relation to others to maintain positive self-esteem

Intergroup Conflict

Hostility and tension between groups, often intensified by competition.

Explain Social Identity Theory with reference to one study - Link

Sherif et al. (1954) supports Social Identity Theory by showing how creating group identities led to in-group favoritism and out-group hostility, especially during competition. The study illustrates how social categorization and intergroup comparisons can fuel conflict, aligning with SIT’s explanation of group-based behavior

Social Categorization

This involves classifying individuals into social groups based on shared characteristics like race, ethnicity, gender, or religion

Social Identification

This refers to the process by which individuals identify with and feel a sense of belonging to a particular group, incorporating the group's values and beliefs into their self-concept.

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

A theory developed by Bandura that suggests behavior is learned through observing others and imitating their actions. Includes observational learning, self-efficacy, and the mediating process.

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation

The four key processes needed for observational learning to occur.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching the behavior of role models and the consequences of those behaviors.

Modeling

The process of imitating the behavior of a role model.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning by observing whether a model’s behavior is rewarded or punished.

Explain Social Cognitive Theory with reference to one study - Link

Bandura et al. (1961) supports Social Cognitive Theory by showing that children learn and reproduce behavior through observation of a role model, even without direct reinforcement. This illustrates the core SCT principle that behavior can be acquired through social learning mechanisms.

Stereotype

A generalized belief or assumption about a group of people.

Schema Theory

A cognitive theory suggesting that mental structures (schemas) help organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge.

Gender Schema

A mental framework for understanding gender-related information and behaviors, formed through cultural and social experiences.

Memory Distortion

The alteration of memory to fit pre-existing schemas.

Explain one theory of the formation of stereotypes with reference to one study - Link

Martin & Halverson (1983) supports schema theory as a cognitive explanation for the formation of stereotypes, showing how pre-existing gender schemas shape and even distort memory to reinforce stereotypical beliefs. This suggests that stereotypes can form as a result of cognitive processes that categorize and simplify social information.

Explain one study of the effects of stereotyping on behavior

Martin & Halverson (1983) demonstrates how stereotypes, as part of schema theory, can influence behavior through memory distortion. The study shows that children used existing gender schemas to interpret and recall information, often changing details to fit socially learned expectations. This suggests that stereotypes are not just passive beliefs but actively shape how individuals process and remember events—an example of behavior influenced by cognitive biases. Even at a young age, children’s recall behavior was guided by stereotypes, highlighting the powerful role of mental schemas in shaping our interactions with the world.

Ethics

In psychological research, ethics refers to a set of moral principles that guide researchers to protect the rights and well-being of participants.

Informed Consent

An ethical requirement in which participants must be fully aware of the nature, purpose, and potential risks of the study before agreeing to participate.

Deception

Occurs when participants are misled or not fully informed about the true purpose of the research, often raising ethical concerns.

Individual and the Group

This topic explores how individuals behave and identify within group contexts, such as in-group/out-group dynamics and conformity.

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the individual and the group - Link

Ethical Consideration – Deception:

Sherif et al. used deception by not informing the boys or their parents of the true aim of the study (to provoke intergroup conflict). The boys believed they were simply attending a summer camp. This raises ethical concerns because informed consent was not truly obtained, and participants were exposed to psychological distress (hostility, aggression) without prior knowledge.

Field Experiment

A type of experiment conducted in a natural environment where the independent variable is manipulated.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the individual and the group - Link

Use of Research Method – Field Experiment in Natural Camp Setting:

Sherif et al. used a field experiment in a natural camp setting to create realistic group situations. This allowed researchers to observe authentic social behaviors and responses to manipulated group conditions. While it increased ecological validity, the method had limited control over extraneous variables and involved ethical concerns like deception.

Cultural Dimensions

A framework for understanding cultural differences based on values and behavior patterns.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

A cultural dimension where individualistic cultures prioritize personal goals and autonomy, while collectivistic cultures emphasize group harmony and shared identity.

Flashbulb Memory (FBM)

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event

Culture

Shared attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours passed from one generation to the next.

Explain one cultural dimension with reference to one study - Link

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) illustrates the cultural dimension of individualism vs. collectivism by showing that people from individualistic cultures are more likely to form vivid, emotional memories (FBMs) of personal significance. In contrast, collectivistic cultures focus less on personal emotion, influencing how memories are encoded. This demonstrates how cultural dimensions can shape cognitive processes like memory.

Enculturation

The process by which individuals learn and adopt the norms, values, and behaviours of their culture.

Explain one study of the enculturation of one behavior - Link

Martin & Halverson (1983) shows how children enculturate gender roles by forming schemas based on their cultural expectations. The study supports the idea that children adopt culturally appropriate behaviors through cognitive processing, illustrating how enculturation shapes gendered behavior

Cultural Norms

Shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a society

Acculturation

The process of psychological and cultural change resulting from contact between cultures

Acculturative Stress

Psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture, often involving anxiety, depression, or identity confusion.

The Acculturative Strategies

Assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization

Assimilation

Individuals adopt the new culture's norms while rejecting their original culture

Separation

Individuals maintain their original culture while rejecting the new culture

Integration

Individuals adapt to the new culture while retaining their original culture

Marginalization

Individuals reject both their original and the new culture.

Protective Factors

Conditions or attributes that reduce the risk of negative mental health outcomes

Risk Factors

Variables that increase the likelihood of negative psychological outcomes in the acculturation process.

Explain one study of acculturation - Link

Lueck & Wilson (2010) demonstrates how acculturation involves both risk and protective factors that influence an individual’s adaptation to a new culture. The study highlights how acculturative stress can be mitigated by social and linguistic factors, emphasizing the complex psychological process of acculturation

Right to Withdraw

The participant’s right to stop participating at any time without penalty.

Back-Translation

A method used to ensure accurate and culturally appropriate translation of research materials in cross-cultural studies.

Explain one ethical consideration in the study of cultural origins of behavior and cognition, with reference to one study - Link

• In cross-cultural studies like Kulkofsky et al. (2011), obtaining informed consent is especially complex and important. Informed consent requires that all participants understand the study’s aim, procedures, and their rights before participating. But when participants speak different languages or come from different cultural contexts, standard consent forms may not be fully understood.

• To address this, the researchers used back-translation—a process where the questionnaires and consent forms were translated from English into Mandarin, German, and Turkish by one bilingual researcher, and then re-translated back into English by another.

• This ensured semantic equivalence, eliminating potential misunderstandings and confirming that participants truly understood what they were consenting to.This was essential because participants were being asked to recall emotionally significant personal memories, and misunderstanding the nature of these questions could cause discomfort or distress.

• Proper informed consent protected participants by ensuring they knew what to expect, could choose to withdraw, and understood how their data would be used—upholding both autonomy and dignity.

Questionnaire

A research instrument consisting of a series of questions designed to gather information from participants on a particular topic.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of cultural Influences on behavior and cognition.

• Kulkofsky et al. (2011) used a questionnaire as their primary research method to investigate how culture influences cognition, specifically in the formation of flashbulb memories. The questionnaire allowed researchers to collect standardized data from a large sample across five different cultures. This method was effective for identifying patterns and differences in how various cultures remember emotionally significant events.

• The questionnaire included both open-ended and close-ended questions that assessed how the participant learned about the event, its emotional and personal significance, and how often they had discussed it. By comparing answers across cultures, the researchers were able to analyze the relationship between cultural values (individualism vs. collectivism) and memory processes.

• To ensure cultural and linguistic validity, all questionnaires were back-translated, which minimized bias and misunderstanding across different languages. This methodological step was essential in a cross-cultural context to maintain reliability and validity

Cognition

Mental processes such as memory, perception, and thinking.

Explain one example of a potential influence of culture on behavior or cognition - Link

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) demonstrates how culture can influence cognition, specifically the formation of flashbulb memories (FBMs). The study found that people from individualistic cultures (e.g., the U.S.) were more likely to form FBMs based on personal emotional relevance, whereas people from collectivistic cultures (e.g., China) were more influenced by the social or national significance of the event. This suggests that cultural values affect how and what people remember, supporting the idea that cognitive processes like memory are shaped by the cultural context in which individuals live. Thus, cultural dimensions such as individualism vs. collectivism can determine the triggers and content of vivid autobiographical memories.

Social Group

A collection of individuals who interact and share a sense of identity.

Realistic Conflict Theory

A social psychological theory that explains how intergroup conflict arises when groups compete for limited resources, leading to hostility and prejudice between groups.

Explain one study of cultural (or social) groups

Sherif et al. (1954) demonstrates how social group membership can influence behavior, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination, particularly when resources are limited. This shows how social dynamics and group identity affect intergroup relations and behavior.

Explain one study of assimilation - Link

Lueck & Wilson (2010) demonstrates how the process of assimilation, particularly the adoption of English as the primary language, can increase acculturative stress in immigrants. This highlights how assimilation can impact psychological well-being and acculturation outcomes