Stage 2 Psychology – The Psychology of Learning

Question-and-Answer flashcards covering key terms, theories, experiments and therapeutic applications across classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, phobias, therapy, reinforcement schedules, mirror neurons, learned helplessness, personal differences and ethics.

What is the psychological definition of learning?

A relatively permanent change in thinking or behaviour that results from experience, study or being taught.

Which three major forms of learning are covered in this topic?

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning.

In classical conditioning, learning always involves what type of response?

An involuntary (reflex) response.

Who accidentally discovered classical conditioning while studying dog digestion?

Ivan Pavlov.

In Pavlov’s original experiment, what was the Unconditioned Stimulus (US)?

Food.

In Pavlov’s original experiment, what was the Unconditioned Response (UR)?

Salivation to the food.

What was the Neutral Stimulus (NS) in Pavlov’s dog study before conditioning?

The sound of the bell/footsteps.

After conditioning, what did the bell become in Pavlov’s experiment?

A Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

After conditioning, the dog’s salivation to the bell alone is called what?

A Conditioned Response (CR).

What did Watson and Raynor aim to demonstrate with Little Albert?

That fear can be a learned response in humans via classical conditioning.

In the Little Albert experiment, what served as the Unconditioned Stimulus?

The loud noise created by striking a steel bar.

What was Little Albert’s Conditioned Stimulus after conditioning?

The white rat.

Define Neutral Stimulus (NS).

A stimulus that does not initially evoke a response but can become a CS through association with a US.

Define Stimulus Generalisation (classical conditioning).

When a CR is elicited by stimuli similar to the original CS.

Provide an example of stimulus generalisation from Pavlov’s experiment.

Dog salivates to a horn/tone similar to the bell.

Define Stimulus Discrimination (classical conditioning).

Responding only to the original CS and not to similar stimuli.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

A reduction or loss of the CR when the US is no longer paired with the CS.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period without further conditioning.

What is contiguity in classical conditioning?

The closeness in time between the CS and US (about 0.5 sec is ideal).

What is contingency in classical conditioning?

The predictability that the CS will be followed by the US.

What phase refers to the period of acquiring a CR?

The Acquisition Phase.

What phase refers to performing a CR without the US present?

The Performance Phase.

What is preparedness in classical conditioning?

The tendency to learn certain associations (e.g., snake fear) more quickly for survival reasons.

Differentiate fear and phobia.

Fear is rational, temporary discomfort; a phobia is extreme, irrational and interferes with daily functioning.

What behavioural therapy uses relaxation, hierarchy and pairing to treat phobias?

Systematic Desensitisation.

Name the three steps of systematic desensitisation.

1) Learn relaxation techniques 2) Create an anxiety hierarchy 3) Pair relaxation with each level until fear is extinguished.

Give one advantage of systematic desensitisation.

Gradual and often considered more ethical.

Give one disadvantage of systematic desensitisation.

Can be slow and expensive.

What does CBT stand for in phobia treatment?

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy.

How does CBT differ from systematic desensitisation?

CBT focuses on changing distorted thoughts as well as behaviour and can be faster but more confronting.

Operant conditioning modifies behaviour based on what?

The consequences (reinforcement or punishment) that follow the behaviour.

Who pioneered operant conditioning research with the ‘Skinner Box’?

B.F. Skinner.

Define reinforcer.

Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

Define punisher.

Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

Describe positive reinforcement.

Adding a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour to increase it (e.g., food pellet after lever press).

Describe negative reinforcement.

Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour to increase it (e.g., turning off shock when lever is pressed).

What is aversive punishment?

Adding an unpleasant stimulus after undesired behaviour (e.g., speeding fine).

What is response cost?

Removing a pleasant stimulus after undesired behaviour (e.g., confiscating phone).

Which increases behaviour: reinforcement or punishment?

Reinforcement.

State one disadvantage of punishment in behaviour change.

Does not teach a replacement behaviour and can cause fear or aggression.

Explain contiguity in operant conditioning.

Consequences must follow behaviour immediately for learning to occur.

Explain contingency in operant conditioning.

Consistency and appropriateness of the consequence determine learning strength.

Define shaping.

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired complex behaviour.

What is biological preparedness in operant conditioning?

Animals more easily learn behaviours aligned with natural instincts.

Differentiate acquisition and performance phases in operant conditioning.

Acquisition: behaviour changes while reinforcement/punishment is present; Performance: behaviour continues without the consequence.

Name the five schedules of reinforcement.

Continuous, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval, Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio.

Which reinforcement schedule is most resistant to extinction?

Variable Ratio.

Give an everyday example of a fixed interval schedule.

Receiving a salary every fortnight.

Give an everyday example of a variable interval schedule.

Checking for social-media notifications that appear unpredictably.

Provide an example of a fixed ratio schedule.

Fruit picker paid after filling 10 buckets.

Why is gambling highly addictive in operant terms?

It operates on a variable ratio schedule, producing high, steady responding and resistance to extinction.

What is the placebo effect in operant conditioning terms?

A learned improvement (often via past negative reinforcement) due to expectation rather than an active treatment.

List the five steps of a behaviour-modification program.

1) Baseline monitoring 2) Set realistic goal 3) Agree on reinforcement schedule 4) Reward small improvements 5) Gradually fade rewards.

Observational learning is also known as what?

Modelling.

Who developed the Bobo Doll experiments on observational learning?

Albert Bandura (with Walters).

What does ARRM stand for in observational learning?

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation.

Give an example of vicarious conditioning.

An observer sees a peer praised for answering correctly and is more likely to answer next time.

How did same-sex modelling affect aggression in Bandura’s study?

Children imitated aggression more when the model’s sex matched their own.

Name two characteristics of a model that increase likelihood of imitation.

High social status and similarity to observer (age, gender, interests).

What are mirror neurons thought to explain?

The neurological basis for imitation and emotional contagion in observational learning.

Define learned helplessness.

A state of passivity and depression after repeated unavoidable aversive stimuli, as studied by Martin Seligman.

State one ethical issue raised by the Little Albert study.

Induced lasting fear in a child without debriefing or desensitisation.

What are the three main categories of assessment methods in learning research?

Objective quantitative, subjective quantitative, qualitative.

Provide an example of objective quantitative data in learning studies.

Behaviour counts (e.g., number of lever presses).

Provide an example of qualitative data in learning studies.

Focus-group responses about therapy experiences.

How can personal characteristics influence learning?

Age, personality, culture and disabilities can affect learning rates and preferred strategies.

How does CBT integrate classical, operant and observational learning?

It targets learned thoughts (classical), reinforces new behaviours (operant) and uses modelling or role-play (observational).

What is stimulus generalisation in operant conditioning?

Performing a learned behaviour in response to stimuli similar to the original discriminative stimulus.

What term describes a stimulus signalling that reinforcement is available in operant conditioning?

Discriminative stimulus.

Why is positive reinforcement typically preferred over punishment?

It teaches the correct behaviour, builds self-esteem and avoids negative emotional side-effects.

Explain preparedness regarding common phobias.

Evolution favoured rapid learning to fear survival threats (e.g., snakes), making such phobias easier to acquire.

What is the goal of systematic desensitisation?

To counter-condition fear responses and replace them with relaxation.

Describe negative reinforcement using the headache example.

Taking Panadol removes headache pain, increasing likelihood of taking Panadol next time pain occurs.

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Learning the likelihood of a behaviour by seeing another person rewarded for it.

Define extinction in operant conditioning.

Reduction in a behaviour when it is no longer reinforced.

Which reinforcement schedule produces “scalloped” response patterns?

Fixed Interval.

Identify one physiological measure that could objectively quantify fear.

Heart-rate monitoring.

Why must reinforcement in shaping be immediate and frequent at early stages?

To clearly signal which successive approximation is desired, strengthening the connection.