The Columbian Exchange and Dietary Reform Movements

Columbian Exchange (1492 - 1750s)

Exchange of goods between Old and New Worlds. New staple crops like potatoes, tomatoes, maize (corn) to Europe; wheat, sugarcane, and livestock to the Americas. Devastating impact on indigenous populations (smallpox, measles).

Transatlantic Slave Trade (16th - 19th Century)

Forced transport of over 12 million Africans. slaves → Americas; raw goods (sugar, cotton) → Europe; manufactured goods → Africa. Officially abolished in the British Empire (1807) and U.S, slavery continues till 1865.

Sylvester Graham (1794-1851)

Dietary reformer promoting vegetarianism and whole grains (graham Crackers). Believed refined flour, meat, and spices led to poor health and moral decline.

John Harvey Kellogg (1852-1943)

Nutritionist who advocated plant-based diets, exercise, and abstinence. Created corn flakes as part of a bland diet to promote health.

7th Adventist Church (Founded 1863)

Religious group emphasizing health and vegetarianism. Inspired Kellogg’s health reforms and the Battle Creek Sanitarium. They promote a holistic lifestyle that includes physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.

Weston A. Price (1870-1948)

Dentist studying diet's effects on health. Argued that processed foods led to physical degeneration. Advocated for traditional diets with whole, unprocessed foods.

John Yudkin (1910-1995)

Nutritionist warning about sugar's health risks. 1972 book Pure, White, and Deadly. Opposed the growing focus on dietary fat as the main health risk.

Insulin Resistance

Condition where cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels. Contributes to type 2 diabetes and metabolic disorders. Often linked to high sugar intake and processed food consumption.

British East India Company (1600-1874)

Monopoly on tea and trade in India. Controlled British trade in India and China. Played a key role in the Opium Wars and colonial exploitation.

Coffee Houses (17th - 18th Century)

Social hubs for intellectual debates in Europe. Nicknamed “penny universities” for intellectual debates. Encouraged the spread of Enlightenment ideas and business networking.

The Tea Act (1773)

Allowed direct tea sales to American colonies. It imposed a tax on tea and granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales, leading to colonial unrest and the Boston Tea Party.

The Sugar Act (1764)

Taxed sugar and molasses imports, raising colonial resentment. Aimed to raise revenue and regulate colonial trade. Increased colonial resentment toward British policies.

Third Wave Coffee (2000s-Present)

Focus on high-quality, specialty coffee movement. Emphasizes ethical sourcing, artisanal roasting, and sustainable farming. Opposes mass-produced commercial coffee.

Tea Gardens (18th - 19th Century)

Public spaces for women to drink tea. Popular in England as an alternative to male-dominated coffeehouses. Associated with the rise of tea culture.

The Stamp Tax (1765)

British tax on paper goods (newspapers, legal documents). First direct tax on American colonists. Led to widespread protests and fueled the American Revolution.

Southern Foodways

Culinary traditions of the American South. Influenced by African, Native American, and European cooking. Includes foods like cornbread, gumbo, and barbecue.

Slave Gardens (Patches)

Plots for enslaved people to grow food. Provided supplemental nutrition and cultural continuity. Included crops like okra, yams, and black-eyed peas.

Mary Randolph The Virginia Housewife (1824)

Author of one of the first American cookbooks. Showcased Southern cuisine and plantation-style cooking.

Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743-1794)

Father of modern chemistry, studied metabolism. Conducted early caloric studies.

The Atwater System (Late 19th Century)

Method for measuring calorie values in food. Categorized macronutrients: protein (4 kcal/g), carbohydrates (4 kcal/g), fats (9 kcal/g).

Wilbur Olin Atwater (1844-1907)

American chemist who developed the Atwater System. Conducted experiments on human metabolism.

Calorimeter

Device measuring heat energy in food. Used to determine calorie content in nutrition studies.

Vitamins (Discovered in early 20th century)

Essential nutrients for bodily function and to prevent deficiency diseases.

Protein

Essential macronutrient for muscle repair and growth. Made up of amino acids.

Carbohydrates

Primary energy source for the body. Includes sugars, starches, and fibers.

Fats

Essential for energy storage, cell function, and hormone production. Includes saturated and unsaturated fats.

Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins, essential from diet.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)

Stored in body fat, vital for vision, immune function, and blood clotting.

Francis Magendie (1783-1855)

French physiologist. Conducted experiments on animal nutrition, specifically on a dog. Helped distinguish proteins as essential nutrients.

William Banting (1796-1878)

English undertaker who popularized a low-carb diet due to his obesity. His pamphlet Letter on Corpulence (1863) influenced modern dieting.

E.V. McCollum (1879-1967)

Discovered vitamins A, B, and D. Conducted early nutrition experiments with rats.

William Prout (1785-1850)

Identified the three macronutrients: protein, carbohydrates, fats. Studied digestion and metabolism, discovered uric acid. Gastric juices of animals contain significant amounts of hydrochloric acid.

Casimir Funk (1884-1967)

Coined the term “vitamin” in 1912. Discovered that certain diseases were caused by vitamin deficiencies (pellagra, rickets).

Joseph Goldberger (1874-1929)

Identified that pellagra was caused by niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency. Conducted experiments to prove the link between diet and disease. Meat, fresh vegetables, and milk could prevent and cure pellagra