Intelligence testing, Conditioning, Learning and Development

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of stage based cognitive development in children

Lev Vygotsky

Known for exploring children's development and how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research

Mary Ainsworth

Developmental psychologist who explored the effects of parenting and devised patterns of attachment including "The Strange Situation" laboratory observation of parent/child attachment

Lawrence Kohlberg

Famous for developing a theory of moral development in children and made use of moral dilemmas in assessment

Erik Erikson

Famous for developing a theory about our psychosocial development with 8 stages. Their theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Moro reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

grasping reflex

An infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

rooting reflex

A baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

sensory motor stage

In Piaget's theory, this is the stage of cognitive development between birth and 2 years of age in which the individual develops object permanence and acquires the ability to form mental representations.

preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. Children in this stage engage in a lot of pretend play and imagination.

concrete operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Games with clear rules appeal to children in this stage

formal operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

constructivist theory

Piaget's theory, in which cognitive development results from children's active construction of reality, based on their experiences with the world

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive

identity vs. role confusion

Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service

Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson's stage of social development in which older Adults try to make sense out of their lives, they either see their lives as a meaningful whole or despair at unreached goals

strange situation test

A parent-infant "separation and reunion" procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child's attachment

secure attachment style

an attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked

insecure-avoidant attachment

an anxious emotional bond marked by a tendency to avoid reunion with a parent or caregiver

insecure-ambivalent attachment

an anxious emotional bond marked by both a desire to be with a parent or caregiver and some resistance to being reunited

Obedience and Punishment Orientation.

Kohlberg's 1st stage (preconventional)- children believe that behaviors that avoid punishment must be "good" or "right."

Individualism and Exchange.

Kohlberg's 2nd stage (pre-conventional) of moral Theory. The "right behaviors" are those that are in the best interest of oneself

tit for tat mentality

Good Interpersonal Relationships.

(Conventional) Stage 3 of Kohlberg's level of moral development; stage at which an individual makes moral decisions in order to uphold the expectations of family and community.

Maintaining the Social Order

(Conventional) Stage 4 of Kohlberg's moral development. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Social Contract and Individual Rights.

(Postconventional) Stage 5 of Kohlberg's moral development theory

universal principles orientation

(Postconventional) Stage 6 of Kohlberg's moral development theory, People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.

Carol Gilligan

Explored beyond the limitations of Kohlberg's moral development theory - developed a model in which "care", instead of "justice" is the guiding principle. Kohlberg developed his model from interviewing males.

Gender

In psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define masculinity, femininity and more.

gender roles

The cultural/social expectations of behavior, attitude and actions for a gender

gender typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

gender identity

an individual's sense of themselves and how they relate to the perceived gender roles in their culture

Gender expression

The characteristics of gender that we present for others to see

sexual orientation/identity

The inclination to feel sexual desire toward people of a particular gender or toward multiple genders

adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

personal fable

Type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique (center of a fantastic story) and protected from harm

imaginary audience

Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of many people's attention and concern

Diana Baumrind

researcher who developed a model of parenting styles that included authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive

authoritative parenting

Parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

authoritarian parenting

Style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

permissive parenting

Style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior

Harry Harlow

Studied infant attachment using monkeys - found that contact comfort rather than food lead to greater attachment.

cellular clock theory of aging

Cells are limited in the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage

activity theory of aging

The psychosocial theory that life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when people maintain the level of activity they displayed earlier in life.

wear-and-tear theories of aging

Theories that the mechanical functions of the body simply wear out with age

Kubler-Ross stages of grief

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Object Permeance (Piaget)

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Conditioning

the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that —naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs. These experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement is not punishment.

positive punishment

The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative punishment

The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule (FI)

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-ratio schedule (VR)

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

primary reinforcer

Stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water

secondary reinforcer

any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, gold stars, or money

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

Early psychologist known most for his work on operant conditioning and "the law of effect." Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes, and promoted unscientific views on eugenics and gender differences.

Edward Tolman

Cognitive psychologist who developed theories of latent learning and cognitive maps by working with rats and mazes

John Garcia

Psychologist who explored concept of taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Albert Bandura

Researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

John Watson

Early behaviorist; famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning

behavior modification

The use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior

Token exonomy

An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

Biofeedback

The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function- like heart rate or blood pressure

latent learning

Learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

insight learning

The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs

learned helplessness

The tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

observational learning

learning by watching others

attention, memory, imitation, motivation

Necessary elements of observational learning

Bobo doll experiment

nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown; when children were later allowed to play with the doll, those children performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

Wolfgang Kohler

Researcher who studied insight learning in chimps and helped found gestalt psychology

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

telegraphic speech

the kind of verbal utterances in which words are left out, but the meaning is usually clear