Psych Unit 1

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with our mental processes (perception, thinking, memory, language).

Dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindspot (visual)

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a 'blind' spot because no receptor cells are located there.

Parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

Sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used for new problems or those that require focused attention.

Sleep

A periodic, natural, easily reversible loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (e.g., of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep stages

The non-rapid eye movement stages of sleep, which include NREM-1, NREM-2, and NREM-3.

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Hypnagogic sensations

Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of floating weightlessly, as you fall asleep.

Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM-3).

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

REM sleep behavior disorder

A sleep disorder in which a person physically acts out vivid dreams during REM sleep.

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.

Sigmund Freud (on dreams)

Proposed that dreams provide a 'psychic safety valve'—expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a latent (hidden meaning) content.

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Sensory receptors

Specialized neurons that detect a variety of stimuli, such as light, sound, odors, and taste.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Transduction

The process of converting one form of energy into another that your brain can use. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

Psychophysics

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

Gustav Fechner

German psychologist who studied psychophysics, the relationship between physical stimuli and our psychological experience of them.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

Signal detection theory

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Subliminal

Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

Difference threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (JND).

Ernest Weber

German physiologist who proposed Weber's Law.

Weber’s law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Wavelength (of light)

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the next; determines hue for light.

Hue

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

Intensity (of light)

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude.

Cornea

The transparent outer layer of the eye that protects the eye and bends light to help provide focus.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Accommodation

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

Cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Optic nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.

David Hubel

Neurophysiologist who, with Torsten Wiesel, discovered feature detectors.

Torsten Wiesel

Neurophysiologist who, with David Hubel, discovered feature detectors.

Feature detectors

Nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

Audition

The sense or act of hearing.

Frequency (of sound)

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time; determines pitch.

Pitch

A tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Middle ear

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

Inner ear

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

Conduction hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Cochlear implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

Place theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.

Frequency theory

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

Gate-control theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological 'gate' that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The 'gate' is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

Gustation

The sense of taste.

Olfaction

The sense of smell.

Kinesthesis

The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

Vestibular sense

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

Sensory interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

Embodied cognition

In psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

What are the fundamental principles of sensation?

Sensation involves bottom-up processing, transduction of stimuli by sensory receptors, and is described by concepts such as absolute threshold, difference threshold (JND), and sensory adaptation, as studied by psychophysics.

What are the 8 primary sensory systems introduced in psychology?

The primary sensory systems include: Vision, Audition (hearing), Gustation (taste), Olfaction (smell), Somatosensation (touch, temperature, pain, pressure), Kinesthesis (body position and movement awareness), and Vestibular sense (balance and head position).

What is the specialized sense responsible for detecting pressure, warmth, cold, and pain?

Somatosensation, often referred to as the sense of touch, encompasses the detection of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain through various receptors in the skin.

What is the Gate-control theory related to?

The Gate-control theory is related to the experience of pain, suggesting that the spinal cord contains a neurological 'gate' that controls whether pain signals reach the brain.

Describe the progression through the NREM sleep stages.

NREM-1 is the initial, brief stage with fleeting images; NREM-2 involves periodic sleep spindles and K-complexes; NREM-3 is deep sleep characterized by delta waves, making it difficult to awaken.

What is paradoxical sleep and why is it called that?

REM sleep is known as paradoxical sleep because, while the brain and other body systems are active, muscles are almost completely relaxed, creating a seeming contradiction.

List four common sleep disorders.

Common sleep disorders include: Insomnia (difficulty falling or staying asleep), Narcolepsy (uncontrollable sleep attacks), Sleep Apnea (temporary cessation of breathing during sleep), and REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (acting out dreams during REM sleep).

What are some benefits of adequate sleep?

Adequate sleep promotes physical and mental restoration, consolidates memory, boosts mood, strengthens the immune system, and improves cognitive function.

What are some effects of chronic sleep deprivation?

Chronic sleep deprivation can lead to fatigue, impaired concentration, irritability, increased mistakes, suppressed immune function, and increased risk of accidents and health problems.

Summarize Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams.

Freud proposed that dreams serve as a 'psychic safety valve' to express unacceptable feelings, composed of manifest (remembered storyline) and latent (hidden meaning) content.

What is the Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreaming?

The Activation-Synthesis Theory suggests that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity (activation) occurring during REM sleep, synthesizing it into a story.

Explain the concept of 'dual processing' in consciousness.

Dual processing refers to the principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) tracks, influencing our perceptions, memories, and attitudes.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Independent variable (IV)

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable (DV)

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding variables

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Case study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. Note: Correlation does not imply causation.

Experimentation

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Cause and effect

A relationship in which one event (the cause) directly brings about another event (the effect), established primarily through experimentation.