6. Hydrocarbons, alcohols, phenols, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins

Hydrocarbons

Organic compounds composed solely of hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Alcohols

Organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) group bonded to a saturated carbon atom.

Phenols

Organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) group directly bonded to an aromatic ring.

Lipids

A diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents; includes fats, oils, hormones, and certain vitamins.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds that include sugars, starch, and cellulose; composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1.

Proteins

Large complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids, linked by peptide bonds; essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s cells, tissues, and organs.

n-propyl group

CH3CH2CH2− (derived from propane)

isopropyl group

CH3CH(CH 3)− (derived from propane)

Vinyl group

CH2 =CH−

Ethene

CH2=CH2, also known as ethylene.

Aromatic compounds

Compounds containing a benzene ring or other planar, cyclic, conjugated systems following Hückel's rule.

Hückel's rule

States that a planar ring molecule is aromatic if it has (4n+2) π electrons, where n is a non-negative integer.

2-naphthol

An aromatic compound containing a naphthalene ring with a hydroxyl group.

1-naphthol

An aromatic compound containing a naphthalene ring with a hydroxyl group.

Hydroquinone

An aromatic compound containing a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups.

2-methyl-cyclohexanol

A cyclic alcohol; not aromatic.

Condensed structure

A simplified chemical formula where atomic symbols are listed in order as they appear in the molecule's structure.

Naphthalene

An aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of two fused benzene rings.

Benzaldehyde

An aromatic aldehyde consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl group.

Phenanthrene

An aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of three fused benzene rings.

Methyl anthracene

An aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of an anthracene core with a methyl group.

Linoleic acid

An unsaturated fatty acid with double bonds in its chain.

Stearic acid

A saturated fatty acid with no double bonds.

Butyric acid

A saturated fatty acid with no double bonds.

Palmitic acid

A saturated fatty acid with no double bonds.

Oxidation of primary alcohols

Can be oxidized to aldehydes (mild oxidation) or carboxylic acids (strong oxidation).

Aldehyde

An organic compound containing a formyl group (–CHO).

H2CrO 4

Chromic acid, a strong oxidizing agent often used to oxidize alcohols.

PCC (Pyridinium chlorochromate)

A mild oxidizing agent used to convert primary alcohols to aldehydes.

Tertiary alcohols

Alcohols where the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl group is attached to three other carbon atoms.

Oxidation of tertiary alcohols

Cannot be oxidized without breaking carbon-carbon bonds.

Methanol

CH 3

OH, a primary alcohol.

Formaldehyde

HCHO, an aldehyde derived from methanol.

Formic acid

HCOOH, a carboxylic acid derived from methanol.

Acetaldehyde

CH2​CHO, an aldehyde with two carbon atoms.

Boiling point of alcohols

Increases with increasing carbon chain length due to stronger London dispersion forces.

Dehydration of alcohols

A reaction where a molecule of water is removed from an alcohol, typically forming an alkene.

Alkenes

Hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

Cyclohexanol

A secondary alcohol.

Secondary alcohol

An alcohol where the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl group is attached to two other carbon atoms.

Hydroxyderivatives

Compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) group.

Reduction of carbonyl group

A method to obtain hydroxyderivatives (alcohols).

Polyunsaturated phenols

Phenols with multiple double bonds and hydroxyl groups.

Quinones

Cyclic diketones formed by the oxidation of phenols, particularly those with hydroxyl groups in ortho and para positions.

Optical activity

The ability of a compound to rotate plane-polarized light.

Chiral center

A carbon atom bonded to four different groups, leading to optical activity.

Dihydroxyacetone

A ketotriose that is not optically active due to the absence of a chiral carbon.

Glyceraldehyde

An aldotriose with one chiral carbon, making it optically active.

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that are the basic units of carbohydrates.

Fischer's projection

A 2D representation of monosaccharides used to depict their stereochemistry.

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharide units.

Lactose

A disaccharide (glucose + galactose).

Cellobiose

A disaccharide (glucose + glucose, β-1,4 linkage).

Maltose

A disaccharide (glucose + glucose, α-1,4 linkage).

Saccharose (Sucrose)

A disaccharide (glucose + fructose).

Glucose

A monosaccharide.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates made of many monosaccharide units.

Amylopectin

A branched polysaccharide of glucose units (component of starch).

Cellulose

A linear polysaccharide of glucose units (structural component of plant cell walls).

Amylose

A linear polysaccharide of glucose units (component of starch).

Agarose

A polysaccharide component of agar.

Arabinose

A monosaccharide (a pentose sugar).

Levorotatory

Rotates plane-polarized light to the left (counter-clockwise).

Dextrorotatory

Rotates plane-polarized light to the right (clockwise).

D-fructose

A monosaccharide that is strongly levorotatory.

Peptide bond

An amide linkage (–CO–NH–) joining amino acids.

Amino acids

Building blocks of proteins.

Carboxyl group

–COOH.

Amino group

–NH2

Endergonic reaction

A reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed.

Irreversible reaction

A reaction that proceeds in one direction and is not easily reversed.

Zwitterion

A molecule containing both positive and negative charges, but with an overall net charge of zero.

Isoelectric point (pI)

The pH at which an amino acid or protein has a net charge of zero.

Gln

Three-letter abbreviation for glutamine.

Glutamine

An amino acid.

Chirality centres

Number of chiral carbons in a molecule.

Number of possible stereo-isomers

2x, where x is the number of chirality centres.