Chapter 1: Introducing Psychological Science

Psychology

The scientific study of behaviour, thought, and experience, and how they can be affected by physical, mental, social, and environmental factors

Scientific Method

a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions

Hypothesis

a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured

Falsifiable

the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false

Pseudoscience

an idea that is presented as science but does not actually utilize basic principles of scientific thinking or procedure

Theory

an explanation for a broad range of observations that also generates new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole

Biopsychosocial Model

a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

Biological Influence

Psychological Influence

Sociocultural Influence

Scientific Literacy

the ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information

Critical Thinking

involves exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others, and with our own assumptions and beliefs

Principle of Parsimony

the simplest of all competing explanations (the most “parsimonious”) of a phenomenon should be the one we accept

Empiricism

a philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience

Determinism

the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause-and-effect relationships

Galen’s 4 Temperaments:

• Sanguine (blood)

• Choleric (yellow bile)

• Melancholic (black bile)

• Phlegmatic (phlegm)

Sanguine (blood)

a tendency to be impulsive, pleasure-seeking, and charismatic

Choleric (yellow bile)

a tendency to be ambitious, energetic, and a bit aggressive

Melancholic (black bile)

a tendency to be independent, perfectionistic, and a bit introverted

Phlegmatic (phlegm)

a tendency to be quiet, relaxed, and content with life

Zeigeist

refers to a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history

Dualism

the idea that there are properties of humans that are not material (i.e. there is a mind or soul separate to the body) 

Materialism

the belief that humans, and other living beings, are composed exclusively of physical matter

Gustav Fechner

• Studied sensation and perception

• Coined the term psychophysics

• Used the experiment where people held balls of the same weight in each hand and the one in the right hand felt heavier 

Psychophysics

field of study that explores how physical energy such as light and sound and their intensity relate to psychological experience

Charles Darwin

• Studying many varieties of plants and animals found around the world

• Behaviour is shaped by natural selection, just as physical traits are

• Behaviours we engage in every day (memory, emotions, social bonds, etc) were the same behaviours that allowed our ancestors to flourish over the course of our species’ history

Clinical Psychology

the field of psychology that concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders

Localization of Brain Function

the idea that certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics

Phrenology

Franz Mesmer

• Believed that exposure to magnets could get out toxic metals from the body - this didn’t work but some patients felt better

• This was the beginning example of the placebo effect

Sigmund Freud

• Used hypnosis to treat his patients; seemed to cure hysterical paralysis 

• Developed Psychoanalysis 

• Conscious experience includes perceptions, thoughts, sense of self, and the sense that we are in control of ourselves

• Unconscious mind contains the forgotten episodes from early childhood as well as urges to fulfill self-serving sexual and aggressive impulses

• He used psychoanalysis to have direct access to the unconscious mind and used this to correct any emotions or feelings that could cause physical symptoms

• Placed great emphasis on how early life experiences influence our behaviour as adults

Hysterical Paralysis

a condition in which an individual loses feeling and control in a specific body part, despite the lack of any known neurological damage or disease

Psychoanalysis

a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes

Sir Francis Galton

• Believes that genetics could explain the physical and psychological differences found in a population 

• Developed Eminence and Took on the question of Nature vs. Nurture which is the inquiry into how heredity and environment influence behaviour and mental processes

• Believed that people with good social groups, political standing, and race should be encouraged to have kids, and everyone else should not

Eminence

a combination of ability, morality, and achievement

Nature and Nurture Relationships

the inquiry into how heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence behaviour and mental processes

Wilhelm Wundt

• Established psychology as an independent scientific field 

• Primary research method was introspection - to look within

• Concluded that mental activity is not instantaneous, it requires a small amount of effort measured by the amount of time it takes to react

Structuralism

an attempt to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements, and to understand how these elements work together.

Edward Titchener

• Established psychology as an independent scientific field 

• Used introspection to devise an organized map of the structure of the human consciousness

• Used structuralism which was an attempt to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements, and to understand how these elements work together

Functionalism

the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience (developed by William James)

Evolutionary Psychology

an approach that interprets and explains modern human behaviour in terms of forces acting upon our distant ancestors

Edwin Twitmyer

• Worked with reflexes

• His work led to the process of classical conditioning (think Pavlov's Dogs) 

Bahviourism

an approach that dominated the first half of the 20th century of North America psychology and had a singular focus on studying only observable behaviour, with little to no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behavior

John B. Watson

• Believed that all behaviour could be explained through conditioning

• Said that if the environment was completely controlled, a child could be brought up to be anything you wanted guaranteed

• Explored connections between scientific research and application

• Marketing/advertising

Edward Thorndike

• Showed that the frequency of different behaviours could be changed based on whether or not that behaviour led to positive consequences 

Radical Behaviourism

the foundation of behaviour was how an organism responded to rewards and punishments (B. F. Skinner)

Norman Triplett

• Conducted the first formal experiments on how the presence of other people influences behaviour - did this on cyclists riding faster in a group than alone

Social Psychology

 the study of the influence of other people on our behaviour

Personality Psychology

the study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we think and act

Kurt Lewin

• Founder of modern social psychology

• Behaviours could be predicted and explained through understanding how an individual with a specific set of traits would respond in a context that involves a specific set of conditions

• B = f{I,E}

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Collected data on remembering and forgetting

Frederick Bartlett

Found that our cultural knowledge and previous experiences shape what elements of an event or storyline are judged to be important enough to remember

Gestalt Psychology

an approach emphasizing that psychologists need to focus on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts

Cognitive Psychology

a modern psychological perspective that focuses on processes such as memory, thinking, and language

Humanistic Psychology

focuses on the unique aspects of each individual human, each person’s freedom to act, their rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from other animals

Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

• Focused on the positive aspects of humanity and the factors that lead to a productive and fulfilling life

• Believed humans strive to develop a sense of self and are motivated to personally grow and fulfill their potential

Hebb’s Law

when a brain cell consistently stimulates another cell, metabolic and physical changes occur to strengthen this relationship

Wilder Penfield

was able to create precise maps of the sensory and motor cortices in the brain

Anna Freud & Karen Horney

made contributions to the understanding of personality

Sandra Bem

examined how sex differences in power were due in large to the sexism in politics, business, home, academia, etc and how stereotypes could affect women’s beliefs about their own abilities

Shelly Taylor

examined sex differences in response to stress and found that males produce “fight or flight”, women seek social supports “tend and befriend”

Cross-cultural Psychology

the field that draws comparisons about individual and group behaviour among cultures

Intergenerational Trauma

the transmission of the negative social and emotional consequences of oppression from one generation to the next

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Allows us to reliably detect activity throughout the entire brain and to depict this activity on clear 3D images

Cognitive Neuroscience

field which combines elements of cognitive psychology and biopsychology

Social Neuroscience

the study of social behaviours (relationships-racism) using fMRI

Positive Psychology

help people see the good in their lives by promoting self-acceptance and improving social relationships with others