Chapter 12 – Biotechnology and Genomics (Essentials of Biology, 6e)

These flashcards review key concepts from Chapter 12—Biotechnology and Genomics—including recombinant DNA tools, PCR, DNA fingerprinting, CRISPR, applications of GMOs in bacteria, plants, and animals, and fundamentals of genomics, proteomics, and bioinformatics.

What is biotechnology?

The manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products.

Define genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology).

A set of laboratory techniques used to manipulate genes, including transferring genes from one organism to another to give new traits.

What is a genetically modified organism (GMO)?

Any organism whose genome has been altered by genetic engineering.

What distinguishes a transgenic organism from other GMOs?

It carries a gene that originated in a different species.

What is recombinant DNA (rDNA)?

DNA that contains sequences from two or more different organisms.

Which enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences to create "sticky ends"?

Restriction enzymes.

Which enzyme joins fragments of DNA together in recombinant DNA work?

DNA ligase.

What is a vector in genetic engineering?

A carrier (often a bacterial plasmid or virus) used to transfer foreign DNA into a host cell.

List the main requirements for a polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Template DNA, Taq DNA polymerase, primers flanking the target, and nucleotides.

Why is Taq polymerase used in PCR?

It is heat-stable and can withstand the high temperatures needed to denature DNA.

Name the three temperature steps in one PCR cycle.

1) Denaturation (~95 °C), 2) Primer annealing (~50-60 °C), 3) Extension (~72 °C).

How does PCR benefit forensic science?

It amplifies trace DNA (e.g., a single hair) so profiles can be generated for identification.

What does STR stand for in DNA profiling?

Short Tandem Repeat.

How does gel electrophoresis separate DNA fragments?

By size; shorter fragments migrate farther through the gel matrix than longer ones.

Give three common forensic or medical uses of DNA fingerprinting.

Identifying suspects, identifying human remains/parentage, detecting disease-related mutations.

What does CRISPR-Cas9 do?

It makes targeted cuts in DNA to remove, inactivate, or replace specific sequences.

What molecule guides Cas9 to the correct DNA target?

A guide RNA (gRNA) complementary to the target sequence.

What is the PAM sequence in CRISPR-Cas9 editing?

A short DNA motif adjacent to the target that must be present for Cas9 to cut.

Give three products made by transgenic bacteria.

Human insulin, human growth hormone (HGH), interferons (α and γ).

State two environmental uses of engineered bacteria.

Oil-spill cleanup and frost prevention on crops (e.g., strawberries).

What percentage of U.S. soybean and corn acres were GM in 2018?

Approximately 94 % of soybeans and 90 % of corn.

Which bacterial gene is inserted into crops for insect resistance, and what does it produce?

Bt gene from Bacillus thuringiensis; it produces a protein toxic to insect pests.

How are crops engineered for herbicide tolerance (e.g., glyphosate)?

A bacterial gene encoding a glyphosate-resistant EPSPS enzyme is inserted into the plant genome.

What consumer benefit does "golden rice" provide?

Enhanced provitamin A (β-carotene) to combat vitamin A deficiency.

List two concerns about GM crops and the environment.

Potential evolution of resistant pests and gene flow into wild or non-GM plants.

Define pharming in the context of GM animals.

Producing pharmaceuticals in the milk (or other tissues) of transgenic farm animals.

Why are transgenic mice valuable to biomedical research?

They model human diseases (e.g., cystic fibrosis, cancer) for studying pathology and testing therapies.

What is the purpose of releasing transgenic Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Florida?

To reduce wild mosquito populations and limit transmission of diseases such as Zika.

Define genomics.

The study of entire genomes, including all coding and non-coding sequences.

How many base pairs and genes were revealed by the Human Genome Project?

About 3.2 billion base pairs and ~19 000 genes.

Explain alternative RNA splicing.

Different combinations of exons are joined, allowing one gene to code for multiple proteins.

Approximately what percentage of the human genome is coding DNA?

1 – 1.5 %.

Name four major types of non-coding DNA.

Introns, structural DNA, repeated/duplicated sequences, transposable elements.

Give one insight gained from comparing the human and chimp genomes.

Genes related to speech, hearing, or smell show differences that may underlie human evolution.

Define proteomics.

The large-scale study of the structure, function, and interactions of proteins produced by a cell.

What is bioinformatics?

The application of computer technology to manage and analyze biological data, especially genomic and proteomic information.

How can genome comparisons help identify disease genes?

By noting DNA sequence differences correlated with disease states across individuals or species.

True or False: Organisms that have foreign genes inserted are called transgenic organisms.

True.

Which agency in the U.S. evaluates the safety of glyphosate herbicide?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

What term describes using microbes over centuries to make wine, cheese, or bread?

Traditional biotechnology (fermentation and selective breeding).