Psych Learning Test

Operant Conditioning

We learn to repeat acts that bring rewards and to avoid acts that bring unwanted results. (Response and its consequence)

Classical Conditioning

We learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as the arrival of food or pain. (Stimulus-stimulus)

Early Behaviorists

believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms.

Later Behaviorists

suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus

Associative learning 

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Unconditioned Stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response UCR).

Unconditioned Response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth).

Conditioned Stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Conditioned response

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Higher order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

Counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.

Taste aversions

a learned aversion to a specific taste or food, developed after experiencing a negative physiological reaction, such as sickness, after consuming it. 

One-trial conditioning 

the phenomenon where a learned response is acquired after only a single exposure to a stimulus-response pairing, rather than requiring multiple trials or repetitions. 

Biological preparedness 

the idea that humans and animals are naturally inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses, particularly those that are relevant to survival and reproduction

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Positive Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Positive Punishment

introducing an unpleasant stimulus or consequence after an unwanted behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. 

Negative Punishment

taking away a desirable stimulus or reward to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. 

Law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely.

Primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Secondary reinforcers

a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because it has been associated with a primary reinforcer, such as food or water.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Successive approximations

a behavioral modification technique used in psychology to gradually establish a desired behavior

Instinctive drift

a phenomenon in psychology where an animal or person trained to perform a specific behavior gradually reverts to their innate, instinctual behaviors over time.

Continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed ratio

a reward is delivered after a specific, unchanging number of responses or behaviors. 

Variable ratio

a type of operant conditioning where a behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to high and persistent rates of responding. 

Fixed interval

a behavior is reinforced after a specific, fixed amount of time has elapsed, regardless of how many responses have occurred. 

Variable interval

a reward is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, leading to a steady, low rate of responding

Observational learning

the process of learning by observing the behaviors of others, retaining the information, and then replicating those behaviors. 

Modeling

learning new behaviors, skills, and ways of thinking and feeling by observing and imitating others

imitation

the act of copying or reproducing the behavior, actions, or gestures of another individual.

Latent learning

learning that occurs without immediate demonstration or reinforcement, and remains hidden until there is a specific incentive or motivation to display it

Cognitive maps

a mental representation of an individual's spatial environment