Women and Gender: Exam 2

Ball State University Psychology of Women and Gender, taught by Dr. Lawson

Essentialism

Male & female qualities are more important than gender differences in behavior.

Social Constructionism

Gender is a product of situations, and occurs based on interactions with people.

Aggression

Caused by complex interactions (Social expectations, predispositions, specific circumstances).

Maccoby and Jacklin's (1974) meta-analysis

Males are more aggressive than females.

Hyde's (1984) meta-analysis

Gender only accounts for 5% of what determines aggression levels in a situation.

The Bombing Video Game & Anonymity Study

In the non-anonymous group, men dropped significantly more bombs than women; in the anonymous group, there was no difference.

Dominance

Imposing one's will on others and/or influencing others' behavior.

Empathy

Quality of being sensitive and responsive to the feelings of others.

Altruism

The tendency to do things for others, without expecting anything in return.

Gender differences in altruism

Depend very much on the situation, such as whether it is dangerous, whether intervention is needed, whether there is an audience, and whether there is a bystander effect.

Role expectations

People are expected to play a certain role in the real world, influencing behaviors such as aggression and dominance.

Twenge's research

Found that as women's status rose, their dominance scores did as well.

Healthcare research bias before mid-1980s

A majority of the research ONLY included men.

Women's Health Equity Act (1991)

Required that women be included, even minorities, in trials of the National Institutes of Health.

Gender differences in physical health

Men are more likely to suffer from genetically linked diseases, die from accidents in teenage years, die in extreme conditions, live shorter lives, and be murdered.

Live Expectancy

Consistently longer in women across many different countries.

Biological influence on gender differences in physical health

Men have XY chromosomes instead of XX; women have lower metabolic rates and higher body fat.

Gender roles influence on health

Men go to the doctor less out of pressure to be manly, allowing smaller problems to build into bigger ones.

Gender-specific preexisting conditions

Conditions like c-section or domestic violence used to be classified as preexisting, making it difficult for women to get insurance.

Health Care Reform

Insurance companies cannot charge women more than men for preexisting conditions.

Gender differences in mental health

Men are more likely to complete suicide and be diagnosed with substance use disorders, while women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and anxiety.

Hormone Hypothesis

Hormones that are high in women cause depression, but does not have a lot of research backing.

Feminine Role Hypothesis

Feminine gender roles encourage women to act/feel helpless, leading to depression.

Stress Hypothesis

Women face more stressors and are more likely to be powerless.

Relationship Difficulties Hypothesis

Women may be more sensitive to relationship stressors.

Developmental Hypothesis

Feminine qualities may lead to depression under stress.

Chronic Stressors

Ongoing stressors linked to higher depression in women.

Master's and Johnson's Research

Studied sexual response through observation and measurement.

Four Stages of Sexual Response

Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution phases identified.

Refractory Period

Time between orgasms; shorter for women.

Selection Bias

Participants were extroverted, affecting study results.

Clark and Hatfield's Research

Campus study showed men more willing for sex.

Survey Methodology Limitations

Honesty and definitions of sex vary among respondents.

Double Standard in Sexual Behavior

Different societal (sexual) expectations for men and women.

Premarital Sex Trends

Increased acceptance and earlier first intercourse since 1940s.

Sexual Orientation

Fluid attraction to same or different sex partners.

Homophobia

Irrational fear and intolerance of homosexuality.

Margaret Sanger

Advocate for women's birth control education and resources.

Modern Birth Control Methods

Includes hormonal, barrier, implantable, emergency, sterilization.

Rape Definition

Unconsented sexual intercourse; 1 in 5 women affected.

Rape Culture

Normalization of sexual violence and victim-blaming.

Pornography

Sexual content marketed as a product; impacts viewers.

Sex Determination

Genetically determined at conception via chromosomes.

Indifferent Gonad

Initial cell clump that develops into male or female.

Gender Roles

Societal expectations influencing health behaviors and diagnoses.

Stressors and Depression

Women face unique stressors contributing to mental health.

Eating Disorders Research

Media influence on body image and eating behaviors.

Sexual Response Differences

Physiological responses vary by anatomy, not stages.

Cultural Attitudes

Shifts in societal views on premarital sex over decades.

Sexual Abuse in Porn Industry

Vulnerable women often face exploitation and abuse.

Neutral Gonad

Undifferentiated gonad before sexual differentiation.

Mullerian Ducts

Female reproductive structures including Fallopian tubes.

Wolffian Ducts

Male reproductive structures including prostate and urethra.

Gonadal Differentiation

Process of gonad developing into ovary or testis.

Testosterone

Male hormone promoting male reproductive tract development.

Mullerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS)

Hormone preventing female reproductive tract development.

Estrogen

Female hormone promoting female reproductive tract development.

Progesterone

Hormone involved in menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

Genetic disorder causing adrenal gland androgen overproduction.

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

Condition where genetically male cannot respond to androgens.

Gender Identity

An individual's personal experience of their gender.

David Reimer

Twin raised as a girl, highlighting gender identity complexities.

Gender Dysphoria

Discomfort with one's assigned gender identity.

Family Structure Changes

Increase in unmarried individuals and single-person households.

Cultural Influence on Marriage

Cultural practices shape marriage customs and expectations.

Communication in Relationships

Observation reveals gender differences in conversation success.

Power Dynamics in Relationships

Men often hold more power due to societal factors.

Reasons Women Stay with Violent Partners

Fear, love, isolation, and financial dependency contribute.

Motherhood Mystique

Idealized view of motherhood leading to unrealistic expectations.

Children Raised by Same-Sex Couples

No negative impact on children's development observed.

Fathers vs. Mothers in Caregiving

Mothers typically do more caregiving than fathers.

Interviewer Bias

Research limitation affecting CAH study outcomes.

Observational Data Limitations

Rarely collected, affecting study reliability.

Socialization Processes

Influence of societal norms on caregiving roles.

Parental Leave Policies

More common for mothers, influencing caregiving dynamics.

Rhesus Monkey Study Results

Female monkeys exhibited more rough play behaviors.

Longitudinal Studies on Testosterone

Link between prenatal testosterone and later behaviors.

Experimental Studies on Aggression

Testosterone injections increased aggression in subjects.