HIBE MIDTERM

Scanning Microscope

a microscope that produces an enlarged, three-dimensional image of an object by using a beam of electrons rather than light


1. **Cannot have live specimen**
2. Requires vacuum 
3. Uses electron detector to detect electrons and form an image

Atomic Force Microscope

A device for mapping surface atomic structure by measuring the force acting on the tip of a sharply pointed wire or other object that is moved over the surface; damages specimen & can only be used once 


1. Samples used do not need any special preparation, does not require a vacuum, can image biological samples

Virus Vaccine

* Contain a weakened or inactivated virus
* Will create immune response without having to fight virus at full strength
* Sure-fire response, may have symptoms

Protein-based vaccine

* Contain synthetic viral proteins and adjuvants 
* Will trigger immune response without having to fight virus (proteins only, contains nothing that could replicate)

Nucleic Acid Vaccine

* Contain DNA or mRNA fragments to produce surface proteins 
* DNA encoding for surface proteins will be transcribed into mRNA, proteins will be built and expressed, and will trigger immune responses

Functions of Vaccine

* A preventative treatment or tool in order to prevent infectious disease
* Is not necessary in an individual that already has immunity

Benefits to Vaccines

* Individuals: will receive protection 
* Next time they are infected, the secondary response will trigger, which is faster and stronger 
* Herd Immunity: the level at which enough of a population is immune to the disease 
* Means that people who are unable to get a vaccine will still be protected. 
* Fewer people who can host the virus means less chance of spreading and less mutations

Muscular System Basics

* Facilitate movement, maintain posture, stabilize joints, produce heat, or maintain a constant body temperature
* Locomotion 
* Posture maintenance
* Stabilize joints
* Produce heat when contracted


1. keeps constant body temp
* (muscles can:


1. contract
2. extend
3. return to original shape)

3 types of muscles

Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and skeletal (or striated muscle)

Smooth

involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs (blood vessels, intestines), help blood and food move


1. characteristics:


1. no striations
2. spindle-shaped cells
3. SINGLE nucleus
4. involuntary

Cardiac muscle

found only in the heart, involuntary, what makes the heart beat


1. Characteristics:


1. striations
2. SINGLE nucleus
3. involuntary
4. cells join to each other at intercalated disc

Skeletal muscle

voluntary, what moves bones, found in nervous tissue, blood vessels, connective tissue, uterus, eye


1. Characteristics:


1. ==mostly attached to tendons and bones==
2. MULTIPLE nuclei
3. striated
4. voluntary
5. cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue

What happens when muscles contract?

They get shorter… by the thick filament (myosin) using ATP to pull the thin filaments (actin) closer to each other. The more contracted muscle causes the angle between the joint to lessen.

The intersection, which is where the muscle end is attached across to the joint, moves toward the origin end of the muscle. **DIstance between origin and intersection decreases**.

What is each muscle covered with?

Each muscle is covered by **fascia**, a type of connective tissue, can also be called **epimysium**

What is each muscle attached to?

Each muscle attaches to bone at the **origin** point (a fixed point), and the other end attaches across a joint to the **insertion** point

What happens when a muscle contracts

When a muscle contracts, the insertion point moves **towards the origin point,** the origin point is unable to move, and as the muscle shortens, the points it attaches to must come closer together, and so the insertion point has to move closer to the origin point.

Relationship between primer movers, antagonists, fixators and synergist muscles:

The **prime mover produces the motion,** this muscle is assisted by other muscles, called **synergist muscles.** In order for one muscle to contract, another must relax, this muscle is usually on the opposite side of the muscle that is contacting, called the **protagonist**. The muscle that does the relaxing is the **antagonist,** the **fixator muscle** stabilizes the motion of the prime mover

primary movers

Large muscles meant to create a large amount of force

antagonist muscle

* Muscles which relax to allow another muscle to contract
* Help ensure that the prime movers are not over extending

fixators

* A muscle which stabilizes the origin of a prime mover.
* Allows the agonist (main actor) to function properly

sygernist

Muscles that aides a prime mover and helps prevent rotation

Latin terms (and what they do)

* *myo= muscle*
* *mys= muscle*
* *sacro= flesh*
* Latin names of muscles allow one to identify different characteristics of muscles, direction of muscle fibers, size, location, and number of origins
* *rectus= straight muscle fiber*
* *maximus= largest muscle of a group*
* *temporalis= location on a bone*
* *triceps= three origins*

Flexion

decreasing the angle between two adjacent body parts

Extension

increasing the angle between two adjacent body parts

Rotation

The bone distal to the joint is moved towards or away from the midline

Abduction

the movement of a body part away from the midline

Adduction

the movement of a body part back toward the midline

Circumduction

a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (windmilling the arms)

Skeletal system functions

Support and protection of the body, movement of the body, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis), storage of inorganic materials, regulation of homeostasis

2 divisions of skeletal system

Axial skeleton (trunk), and the appendicular skeleton (limbs)

synthrotic joints

non-movable joints (skull)

fibrouos

articulating parts of joints are separated by collagen fibers

* synthrotic sub-joint

symphasis

joint in the body where one bone meets another

* synthrotic sub-joint

cartiligiounous

unossified masses between bones or parts of bones which have a cartilaginous stage

* synthrotic sub-joint

amphiarthrotic

Slightly moveable joints (vertebrates)

***Syndesmosis***

joint with complete fibrous connective tissue

* amphiarthrotic sub-joint

Symphysis

joint with broad, flat fibrocartilage plate which cushions joints and allows for some movement

* amphiarthrotic sub-joint

diarthrotic

moveable joint (knees, elbows, wrist, shoulder)

Synovial

joint found between bones which move against each other

* Ball and socket joint (shoulder and hip) 
* Hinge (elbow or knee) 
* Pivot (lower arm)
* Saddle (thumb)

\
* diarthrotic sub-joint

3 fracture patterns (fracture puzzle)

Transverse, Spiral, Comminuted

Transverse pattern:

straight across fracture caused by bending force

Spiral pattern:

caused by twisting force

Comminuted pattern:

caused by impact force

3 Categories of (Type 1) Bone Fractures

greenstick fracture, fissured fracture, comminuted fracture

greenstick fracture

* incomplete- break occurs on the convex surface of the bend

fissured fracture

* incomplete- longitudinal break

comminuted fracture

complete- fragments the bond

Categories of (Type 2) Bone Fractures

transverse, oblique, spiral

transverse

* complete- occurs at right angle to axis of bone

oblique

* complete- occurs at angle other than right angle

spiral

* complete- caused by twisting bone

Cobbs Angle

Used to measure the severity of a scoliotic curve from the x-ray

How to measure cobbs angle

1. Extend lines from the most tilted vertebrae above apex and most tilted vertebrae below apex until they cross
2. Draw a line perpendicular to the top line and a line perpendicular to the bottom line, they should cross and make an X
3. The vertical angle in the X is the Cobb angle:

**Top vertebrate is the atlas (C1); The second is the axis (C2)**

when does a scoliosis patient need bracing?

25deg≤θ≤45 deg

when does a scoliosis patient need surgery

θ≥45 deg

Spine Anatomy( Vertebrae and regions - basic)

Spine has 24 vertebrate sorted into 3 functional regions

Cervical region

has the top 7 vertebrae

Thoracic region

has middle 12 vertebrae

Lumbar region

has bottom 5 vertebrae

Sacrum

area with pelvis and tailbone (coccyx)

Difference between normal and abnormal spine:

* normal spine: has S-shaped curve when viewed from the side, appear straight vertical when viewed from front or back on x-rays 
* Abnormal spine: has an abnormal curve to the side, front, or back 
* Kyphosis
* Hunchback curve 
* Lordosis
* Swayback in the lower region

human hand anatomy

14 phalanges in the fingers
5 metacarpals in the palm
8 carpals in the wrist

hand joints

* **Distal interphalangeal joint** between the distal and middle phalanges
* **Proximal interphalangeal joint** between the middle and proximal phalanges
* **Metacarpal phalangeal joint** between the proximal phalanx and metacarpal of the wrist 

Hand tendons

connect bones of each finger to muscles in forearm and allow the fingers to curl into a grip

* Flexor digitorum profundus (FDP)  tendon ends at the distal phalanx
* Required for deep grip 
* Flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) tendon ends at middle phalanx
* Required for shallow grip

what affects grip strength

Whether or not both tendons are used in the grip, grip with both FDS and FDP will be stronger than just FDS alone

Knee anatomy

* Four bones: femur, tibia, fibula (small one), patella 
* Four ligaments: anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), medial collateral ligament (MCL), lateral collateral ligament (LCL)

anterior vs lateral view

Anterior shows front view, lateral shows side view

Motions of knee

Flexion, Extension, Varus, Valgus

flexion of knee

knee bending backwards, shin coming closer to body

extension of knee

knee moving forwards, shin moving away from body

varus of knee

movement inside (towards the midline)

valgus of knee

movement outside (away from midline)

4 Principle Ligaments of knee

anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), medial collateral ligament (MCL), lateral collateral ligament (LCL)

Clinical Tests to Test Injury

* Anterior drawer test, pulling shin out away from midline
* Posterior drawer test, pushing shin in towards midline
* Varus stress test: pulling shin in sideways, towards midline
* Valgus stress test: pulling shin out sideways, away from midline

transverse patter force

bending force

spiral fracture patter force

twisting force

comminuted fracture pattern force

impact force

Anatomical Directions

* **Proximal**: nearer to the center of the body or point of attachment
* **Distal**: farther away from the center of the body or point of attachment 
* **Medial**: nearer to the midline of the body
* **Lateral**: outside/ in the region farther from the midline of the body

Femur Features

* Femoral head at top of bone (proximal) near hip joint
* Femoral neck
* Trochanteric region
* Shaft
* Condyles by knee joint

proximal fractures (femur)

Occur near the femoral head, neck, or trochanteric region

distal fractures (femur)

* Entra-articular fractures are outside the cartridge area of condyles 
* Intra-articular fractures are inside the cartilage area of condyles

this is just an image of femur breaks

Nanoscale

The scale at which an object can be considered nano, 1-100 nm

nanotechnology

Application of property modifications that happen at the nanoscale to some beneficial endeavor

kilo

 10^3, 1000 g/m/s

Base unit

BU: 10^1, 1 g/m/s

mili

10^-3, 0.001 g/m/s

micro

10^-6, 0.000001 g/m/s

nano

10^-9 0.000000001 g/m/s

pico

10^-12, 0.000000000001 g/m/s

astronomical

needs to be seen with a telescope (10^11 and larger)

macro

can be seen with the human eye (10^3 - 10^-3)

micro

must be seen with a microscope (10^-4 - 10^-6)

nano

use electron microscope to see, must be 1-100 nm to be considered nano (10^-7 to 10^-9)

atomic

size of atoms and molecules ( 10^-10)

subatomic

size of subatomic particles (10^-15)

color at nanoscale

* Result of interaction of light with the composition and atomic structure of the sample
* Optical properties change

size at nanoscale

Between 1 and 100 nm

* Will have greater surface area to volume ratio than larger particles

nanoparticle

nano in all 3 directions

nanofilm

nano in 1 dimension but unlimited in the other 2, physical properties still change to what they are in nano, but size can be unlimited