Sociology of Deviance and Crime: Theories and Concepts

Deviance

The violation of norms, rules, or expectations of society. Howard Becker: "It is not the act itself, but the reaction to the act, that makes something deviant."

Crime

Violation of laws written into legal codes.

Relativity of Deviance

What is considered deviant varies across cultures and social groups.

Stigma

Characteristics that discredit a person's identity (appearance, ability, involuntary traits). — Erving Goffman.

Norms

Social rules that make social life predictable.

Social Control

Methods and strategies a society uses to encourage conformity and prevent deviance.

Cesare Lombroso

Believed criminals are biologically different ("born criminal") based on physical traits.

Sociobiology

Explains deviance via genetic predispositions, such as extra Y chromosome or muscular build.

Psychological Explanation

Links deviance to personality disorders or abnormal psychology.

Differential Association Theory - Edwin Sutherland

People learn deviance through interaction with groups that provide "excess definitions" favorable to deviance.

Control Theory - Walter Reckless

Inner controls (morality, conscience) and outer controls (family, police) work to prevent deviance.

Control Theory - Travis Hirschi

Strong social bonds (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief) increase self-control and reduce deviance.

Attachment

Emotional ties to people who follow societal norms.

Commitment

Investment in conventional roles and activities (school, career).

Involvement

Participation in approved, socially acceptable activities.

Belief

Agreement with moral validity of societal norms.

Labeling Theory - Howard Becker

Labels assigned by society affect how individuals see themselves and how others treat them.

Primary Deviance

Initial act of rule-breaking that may or may not lead to labeling.

Secondary Deviance

Deviance that results from being labeled and accepting a deviant identity.

Techniques of Neutralization - Sykes & Matza

Strategies used to rationalize or justify deviant behavior.

Denial of Responsibility

"It wasn't my fault; I had no control."

Denial of Injury

"No one got hurt, so it's not wrong."

Denial of Victim

The victim deserved what happened.

Condemnation of the Condemners

Those judging have no right—they're hypocrites.

Appeal to Higher Loyalties

Loyalty to friends, family, or group overrules law or norms.

Functionalist Perspective

Deviance is functional: it clarifies norms, encourages social unity, and promotes social change.

Strain Theory - Robert Merton

Deviance results when society promotes cultural goals (wealth, success) but denies some groups the legitimate means to achieve them.

Innovation (Strain Theory)

Using illegitimate means (crime) to achieve cultural goals.

Illegitimate Opportunity Structure

Opportunities for crime are socially structured; the poor have access to street crime opportunities.

White-Collar Crime - Edwin Sutherland

Crimes committed by high-status individuals in their occupations (fraud, bribery, embezzlement).

Conflict Theory

Laws and justice system protect the powerful and control the powerless; crime reflects inequality and power struggle.

Power and Inequality

The powerful create and enforce laws to maintain privilege and punish the poor more harshly.

Medicalization of Deviance

Defining deviance as a medical problem needing treatment rather than punishment.

Thomas Szasz

Mental illness is often just "problems in living," not a true disease.

Inner Controls

Morals, conscience, fear of punishment, desire to be a good person.

Outer Controls

Influence of others like family, friends, police that discourage deviance.

Social Bonds

Connection to society that prevents deviant behavior (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief).