Unit 1B - AP Psychology

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Afterimages (Negative)

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed. (negative is the opposite color)

Amplitude

The height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the wave (peak or crest) to the lowest point on the wave (trough). For vision, provides brightness. For hearing, provides loudness

Bitter

the unpleasant taste evoked by foods like coffee, spinach, and brussels sprouts; natural selection may contribute to a predisposition to find these tastes unpleasant, especially during early childhood, as bitter-tasting substances in the natural environment are often toxic

Blindspot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating an area in which no visual information can be detected because no receptor cells are located there.

Conduction Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea, damage to the outer or middle ear

Cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina (fovea); function in daylight and in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Dichromatism

Partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Red-green color blindness is the most common, whereas the blue-green variety is relatively rare.

Farsightedness

is a refractive error due to an abnormally short eyeball, which causes the image of close objects to be blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies behind, rather than on, the retina

Frequency Theory

The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

Ganglion Cells

The last layer of photoreceptors within the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation; make up the optic nerve

Gate Control Theory

The spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals air allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

Gustation

The sense of taste

Just-Noticeable Difference

The minimum distinction between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

Kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Loudness

the subjective magnitude of sound. It is determined primarily by the height of a sound wave

Monochromatism

a partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Everything appears in various shades of a single color

Nearsightedness

The retinal image is blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies in front of, rather than on, the retina.; this allows you to see what is near you, but struggles with items far away

Nontasters

someone who has less taste perception; like hot spicy foods, and usually require more seasoning to make it taste good. This is true except for salt; have a clear preference for high-fat, sweeter foods

Oleogustus

the unique taste of fat, recently identified as separate from other distinct tastes

Olfaction

The sense of smell, involving stimulation of receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium (located in the nasal passages) by airborne volatile substances called odorants.

Opponent-Process Theory

Opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.

Phantom Limb

The feeling that an amputated limb is still present, often manifested as a tingling or, occasionally, painful sensation in the area of the missing limb.

Pheromones

Olfactory chemical messages that are released outside the body by members of a species and that influences the behavior of other members of the species. For, example, it may serve to attract a mate or to act as an alarm.

Photoreceptors

Visual receptors in the eye, specifically rods and cones.

Pitch

A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency or wavelength

Place Theory

Links the pitch we hear with where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

Prosopagnosia (Face Blindness)

Inability to recognize familiar faces.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Rods

photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary of peripheral vision and twilight vision.

Semicircular Canals

A set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance (vestibular sense)

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment; stimulation of sense organs

Sensorineural Deafness

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; damage to inner ear

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (flavor = smell + taste)

Sound Localization

The ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources

Supertaster

An individual whose perception of taste sensations is the most intense; about 25% of the population. These individuals are more sensitive to bitter and spicy tastes; they are so sensitive to bitter they tend to be very picky eaters and dislike many foods

Sweet

the pleasurable taste associated with sugars, an immediate source of energy

Synesthesia

When one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another; may see colors while hearing specific tones

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla - all senses but smell are processed here.

Transduction

Conversion of one form of energy into another - transferring stimulus energies into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, green, and blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Umami

denoting the taste of foods rich in protein (e.g., meats, fish, some vegetables, cheeses), as represented by the taste of monosodium glutamate, which is used primarily to enhance other flavors. Umami is sometimes described as "savory." [Japanese, "delicious"]

Vestibular Sense

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

Optic Nerve

Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Volley Theory

This theory states that groups of neurons of the auditory system respond to a sound by firing action potentials slightly out of phase with one another so that when combined, a greater frequency of sound can be encoded and sent to the brain to be analyzed.

Warm/Cold Receptors

combined equals hot; Cold receptors are free nerve endings with thin myelinated fibers, whereas the warm receptors are free nerve endings with unmyelinated axons with low conduction speeds

Wavelength

The distance between two corresponding parts of a wave; determines color within vision and pitch within sounds.

Weber's Law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Blindsight

A condition in which people who are blind have some visual capacities in the absence of any visual awareness.

Red Waves of Light

These are long waves of light.

Green Waves of Light

These are medium waves of light.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Blue Waves of Light

these are short waves of light

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Cornea

the transparent layer forming the front of the eye.

Pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Bipolar Cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

Ganglion Cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

Dark Adaptation

The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.

Light Adaptation

the process whereby the eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination

Color Vision Deficiency

impaired ability to perceive color differences, problematic or incomplete cone photopigments

Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane)

a thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear; sound waves cause it to vibrate

Pinna

the visible part of the outer ear

Auditory Canal

short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the eardrum

Ossicles

three tiny bones in the middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes)

Cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

Basilar Membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

Melatonin

A hormone produced mainly by the pineal gland that is implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle. Mellows you out!

Activation Synthesis

Theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story.

Circadian Rhythm

The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Consolidation Theory

The theory that sleep aids memory consolidation, making stable memories

Hypnogogic Sensations

jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Jet Lag

A disruption of circadian rhythm due to crossing time zones.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks and excessive sleepiness. May lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; all sleep stages except for REM sleep

NREM Stage 1

the initial stage of NREM sleep, characterized by theta waves, a slow heart rate, and reduced muscle tension.

NREM Stage 2

a stage of NREM sleep that is defined alpha waves, with sleep spindles and K complexes

NREM Stage 3

slow wave sleep, deep sleep; delta waves, somnambulism is most likely to occur.

Paradoxical Sleep

Although though the brain is quite active during REM sleep, consuming large amounts of energy, the body remains completely inactive. In addition, the brain waves during REM sleep are reminiscent of the brain waves demonstrated when someone is awake and alert (beta waves)

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

a sleep-wake disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one's dream; rare

Sleep Apnea

A sleep-wake disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep; leads to excessive day time sleepiness

Somnambulism

A sleep-wake disorder characterized by persistent incidents of complex motor activity during slow-wave NREM sleep. These episodes typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking, although the individual may also perform more complicated tasks, such as eating, talking, or operating machinery. While in this state, the individual stares blankly, is essentially unresponsive, and can be awakened only with great difficulty

Beta Waves

brain waves while awake and alert

Alpha Waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Theta Waves

brain waves indicating the early stages of light sleep (stage 1 and 2)

Sleep Spindle

rapid burst of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory

K Complex

very high amplitude pattern of brain activity associated with stage 2 sleep that may occur in response to environmental stimuli

Delta Waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (stage 3)

Restoration Sleep Theory

theory that sleep is a biological need

Sleep Deprivation

any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability, immune system issues, etc.