ap pysch unit 7 - motivation, personality, and emotion

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

instinct theory

the earliest attempt to explain human motivation, based on inborn patterns (names behavior but explains animal behavior better than human behavior - humans have few true instincts)

evolutionary psychology

underlying assumptions that genes predispose species-typical behavior

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (and regain homeostasis)

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

yerkes-dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases (basically, moderate arousal leads to optimum performance. too much can cause overperformance, too little can cause underperformance)

abraham maslow’s hierarchy of needs

maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. physiological needs (hunger, thirst) → safety needs (feel safe, organized/predictable) → belongingness and love (experience love, care, belonging, acceptance & avoid loneliness) → esteem (self-esteem, achievement, competence, independence, recognition/respect from others) → self actualization (need to live up to our fullest & unique potential) → self-transcendence (find meaning & identity beyond self)

optimal arousal theory

some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal - since human motivation aims to not eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for it’s own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

achievement motivation

defined by henry murray - a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a higher standard

self-efficacy

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness

cognitive dissonance

leon festinger - the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

over justification effect

the overuse of bribes lead people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing

set point

the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

basal metabolic rate

a measure of how much energy we use to maintain basic body functions when our body is at rest (it can drop)

settling point/set range

indicate the level at which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and energy use

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. when the level is low, we feel hunger.

insulin

hormone secreted by pancreas and controls blood glucose; appetite hormone

ghrelin

hormone secreted by an empty stomach and sends “i’m hungry” signals to the brain; appetite hormone

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus; appetite hormone

leptin

protein hormone secreted by fat cells, when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger; appetite hormone

pyy

digestive tract hormone, sends “i’m not hungry” signals to the brain; secreted by the digestive tract; appetite hormone

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15% or more) underweight

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually out of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), excessive exercise, or fasting

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by masters & johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

refractory period

resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in male stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

estrogen

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. in nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning - erectile disorder, premature ejaculation, female orgasmic disorder

alfred kinsey

heterosexual homosexual rating scale

masters & johnson

came up with the sexual response cycles (excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution)

affiliation need

the deep need to belong to in a positive, sometimes intimate or personal relationship

autonomy

a sense of personal control

competence

he ability to exert control over one's life, to cope with specific problems effectively, and to make changes to one's behavior and one's environment, as opposed to the mere ability to adjust or adapt to circumstances as they are

self-esteem

a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel

attatchment styles

failure to form secure attachments early in life can have a negative impact on behavior in later childhood & throughout life. those who are securely attached in childhood tend to have good self-esteem, strong romantic relationships, and the ability to self-disclose to others

secure attachment

• children who can depend on their caregivers show distress when separated and joy when reunited

• about ½ of the involved in love relationships are securely attached

• 70% of infants are securely attached

avoidant attachment

• ~15% no preference between caregiver and complete strangers

• may be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers

• ~25% of people in romantic relationships are insecure avoidant

ambivalent attachment

• ~7-15% children become very distressed when parent leaves, and very fearful of strangers

• results from inconsistent parental availability - unreliable caregiver

• ~20% of people in romantic relationships are ambivalent (insecure anxious attachments - eager to get close but scared of abandonment)

disorganized attachment

• confusing mix of behavior - disoriented, dazed, confused

• avoid/resist caregiver due to inconsistent caregiver behavior

• caregiver could be both comfort and fear, leading to disorganized behavior

avoidance avoidance

choosing between two undesirable options

approach-avoidance

making a choice that has both desirable and undesirable features

approach approach

choosing between two desirable options

chain migration

a situation in which migrants from a particular place follow other migrants to a particular destination

ostracism

social exclusion - exile, imprisonment, solitary confinement, to punish, and therefore control, social behavior

anterior cingulate cortex

the part of the brain that activates in response to physical pain and ostracism

narcissism

self-esteem gone awry - self-importance, self-focus, self-promoting; people who like attention; excessive self-love and self-absorption

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience

james-lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotional-arousing stimuli. (we observe our heart racing after a threat and feel afraid)

canon-bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion. (our heart races at the same time we feel scared)

two-factor theory

the schachter-singer theory that to experience emotion one must be physically arouse and cognitively label the arousal. emotions are felt depending on the person’s interpretation of environmental cues and the experienced physiological arousal. (we may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context

zajonc

contends that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our interpretation of a situation (feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat

ledoux

the “low road” - a fear-provoking stimulus would travel from the eye or ear via the thalamus directly to the amygdala. this enables emotions an instant emotional reaction before intellect intervenes.

lazarus

our brain processes vast amounts of info without our conscious awareness - some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.

schachter & singer

two factor theory, spillover effect

spillover effect

arousal spills over from one event to the next (ex: mad at work, get mad at cat after you get home)

duchenne smile

a natural smile, characterized by wrinkling around the eyes

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

health psychology

a subfield of psych that provides psych’s contribution to behavioral medicine

paul ekman

done research (and has trained law enforcement officers) in detecting fleeting signals of deceit in facial expressions, studied facial expressions

behavior feedback

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions.

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

cortisol

a stress hormone

general adaptation syndrome (gas)

hans selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm (sympathetic nervous system is activated), resistance (temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high - adrenal glands pump hormones into the bloodstream), exhaustion (when your reserves begin to run out after no relief from stress - more vulnerable to illness, collapse/death)

telomeres

pieces of dna at the ends of chromosomes. part of the normal aging process and when they get too short, cells can no longer divide. this is the reason why severe stress seems to age people.

tend and befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

oxytocin

stress-moderating hormone associated with pair bonding in animals and released by cuddling, massage, and breast feeding in humans.

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

glucocorticoid

steroid hormones produced from the cortex of adrenal glands

type a

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

type b

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people

lymphocytes

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

macrophage

identifies pursues, and ingests harmful invaders and worn out cells

natural killer cells

pursue diseased cells, such as those infected by virus or cancer

carcinogens

cancer-producing substances (stress does NOT create cancer cells!!)

hans selye

proposed that the body’s adaptive response to stress is so general that, like a single burglar alarm, it sounds, no matter what intrudes (GAS)

psychophysiological illness

literally, “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

lewin’s motivational conficts theory

psychological conflicts are divided into approach-approach, avoidance-approach, and avoidance-avoidance

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

unconcious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

manifest content

the remembered content of dreams

latent content

censored expression of the dreamer’s unconscious wishes

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspiration

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

regression

retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

reaction formation

switching unacceptable impuleses into their opposite (repressing angry feelings, someone displays exaggerated friendliness)

projection

disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others (messes up an important presentation, says that no one is perfect and that people mess up presentations all the time)