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Carbohydrates
Monomers are monosaccharides (sugar molecules).
Lipids
Monomers are glycerol and three fatty acids.
Proteins
Monomers are amino acids.
Nucleic acids
Monomers are nucleotides.
Elements in Carbohydrates
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).
Elements in Lipids
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).
Elements in Proteins
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N).
Elements in Nucleic Acids
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), and Phosphorus (P).
Functions of Carbohydrates
Provide short term energy.
Functions of Lipids
Serve as long term energy storage.
Functions of Proteins
Strengthen, defend, transport, and catalyze chemical reactions.
Functions of Nucleic Acids
Store genetic information; examples are DNA and RNA.
Enzyme
A type of protein that catalyzes chemical reactions.
Peptide Bond
A covalent bond between an amine group and a carboxyl group between two amino acids.
Dehydration Synthesis
The process of combining molecules by removing water, creating polymers.
Hydrolysis
The chemical breakdown of compounds due to the addition of water, creating monomers.
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars like glucose and fructose.
Disaccharides
Sugars made of two monosaccharides, e.g., sucrose and lactose.
Polysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose.
Unicellular Organisms
Organisms made of only one cell, not complex.
Multicellular Organisms
Organisms made of many cells, complex in structure and function.
Cell Specialization
Cells with unique characteristics/functions in a multicellular organism.
Prokaryotic Cell
A cell that lacks a nucleus; DNA is free-floating.
Eukaryotic Cell
A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Nucleus
The membrane-bound organelle containing DNA in eukaryotic cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Acts as a highway for transporting materials within the cell.
Nuclear Envelope
A double membrane surrounding the nucleus.
Cytoskeleton
Provides structural support for the cell.
Cell Membrane
A semi-permeable barrier that maintains homeostasis.
Golgi Apparatus
Packages and distributes compounds within the cell.
Chloroplast
Converts sunlight to energy (glucose) during photosynthesis.
Mitochondria
The powerhouse of the cell, producing ATP.
Vacuole
A storage chamber in the cell for food, water, and waste.
Carrying Capacity
The maximum population size an environment can sustain.
Hypertonic Solution
A solution that causes a cell to shrink due to water loss.
Hypotonic Solution
A solution that causes a cell to swell due to water gain.
Isotonic Solution
A solution where there is no net water movement in or out of the cell.
Active Transport
Requires energy to move molecules from low to high concentration.
Passive Transport
Does not require energy; moves molecules from high to low concentration.
Chemiosynthesis
Flow of protons down an electrochemical gradient, producing energy.
Central Dogma of Life
DNA → RNA → Proteins → Organisms.
Transcription
The process of turning DNA into mRNA.
Translation
The process of synthesizing proteins based on mRNA codons.
Silent Mutation
Mutations that do not alter the amino acid sequence of a protein.
Nonsense Mutation
Mutations that create a stop codon, truncating the protein.
Missense Mutation
Mutations that substitute one amino acid for another in a protein.
Nondisjunction
An error in meiosis when homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
Fertilization
The process when male and female gametes combine to form a zygote.
Zygote
The fertilized egg with 46 chromosomes.
Alleles
Different forms of a gene.
Incomplete Dominance
A blending of two traits in the offspring.
Codominance
Both traits are fully expressed in the offspring.
Gene Flow
The movement of alleles from one population to another.
Founder Effect
A type of genetic drift that occurs when a small population establishes a new population.
Natural Selection
The process by which individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce.
Adaptation
An evolutionary change that improves an organism's fitness in its environment.
Convergent Evolution
Similar traits develop in species that are not closely related due to similar environments.
Divergent Evolution
Different adaptations evolve from a common ancestor's structures.
Genetic Drift
Random changes in allele frequencies in a population, often reducing genetic diversity.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
A state where allele frequencies remain constant in a population, indicating no evolution.
Gene Flow (Example)
Pollen being blown to a new location.
Genetic Drift (Example)
Bottleneck effect leading to reduced genetic variation.
Three Types of Natural Selection
Stabilizing, Directional, and Disruptive selection.
Homologous Structures
Similar structures in different species arising from a common ancestor.
Analogous Structures
Different structures in different species that perform similar functions.
Vestigial Structures
Body parts reduced in size and function that were fully developed in ancestral species.
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