1 Techniques of Emphasis, 1 Rhetorical fallacies, 1 Techniques of meaning

Repetition

speaking or writing something again for rhetorical effect

Alliteration

the repetition of sounds, usually initial consonants in neighboring words: "She sells sea shells by the sea shore."

Amplification

an expansion of adding detail to clarify a point: "We few, we happy few, we band of brothers."

Anaphora

a repetition of a word or of words at the beginning of two or more successive clauses: "I came, I saw, I conquered."

Antimetabole / Chiasmus

(AN-ti-mə-TAB-ə-lee) repetition of words in reverse order (ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country)

Antistrophe (Epistrophe)

repetition of a word or phrase at the close of successive clauses: "You said he was late — true enough. You said he was not prepared — true enough. You said he did not defend his statements — true enough." "I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth." "[T]his nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people [...]"

Antithesis

opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction: "Many are called, but few are chosen," "We shall support any friends, oppose any foe"

Asyndeton

absence of conjunctions: "We cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground."

Epanalepsis

starting and ending a phrase, clause, or a sentence, or a passage, with the same word or phrase: "Nothing is worse than doing nothing." "Only the poor really know what it is to suffer, only the poor."

Inversion

the reversal of the normal order of words for rhetorical effect. "Shouts the politician."

Loose sentence

opposite of a periodic sentence, a sentence type in which the most important idea is expressed first, with dependent grammatical units following often conveying informality and a more conversational feel: "He might consider paying the higher fees at a private university, if the teacher/student ratio is small, the teachers are highly qualified, and the job placement rate is high." "You can pass all your classes with good study habits and good attendance." "He decided to major in science, even though he really wanted to study art, philosophy, and religion."

Parallelism

the framing of words, phrases, or clauses to provide structural similarity and symmetry

Periodic sentence

opposite of a loose sentence, a sentence in which critical meaning comes only at the end (at the period); in this sentence type, the important independent clause is preceded by dependent phrases or clauses (its effect is often more formal and adds emphasis and variety). (e.g. "In spite of heavy snow and cold temperatures, the game continued." "With low taxes, beautiful views and a mild climate, this city is a great place to live.")

Polysyndeton

an insertion of conjunctions before each word/phrase in a list: "My fellow students read and studied and wrote and passed. I laughed and played and talked and failed."

Repetition

speaking or writing something again for rhetorical effect

Syntax

the way an author arranges words, phrases, and sentences

Rhetorical Fallacy

an error in reasoning that may render an argument invalid

ad hominem

(literally, "against the man") when a writer personally attacks his or her opponents instead of their arguments

appeal to false authority

an author cites an individual who has no expertise to comment on the issue

dogmatism

an author asserts or assumes that a particular position is the only one that is conceivably acceptable; no argument is necessary because the truth is self-evident and needs no support

stacking the deck

an author presents only one side of a story, the side that supports the author's argument

circular reasoning

often called begging the question, the argument repeats the claim instead of providing evidence

equivocation

half truths that give lies an honest appearance

faulty analogy

an argument compares two things that are not comparable (ignoring significant

differences)

hasty generalization

a faulty conclusion is reached after inadequate evidence (smoking isn't bad; my sister has smoked for years and remains the picture of health)

non-sequitur

when one statement isn't logically connected to another

post hoc, ergo propter hoc

when a writer implies that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second. But sequence is not cause.

red herring

when a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue

straw man

when a writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak. Setting up a straw man diverts attention from the real issue.

ad populum (bandwagon appeal)

a claim supported by popularity

either/or (false dilemma)

an argument presents two extreme options as the only possible choices (politicians, ha!)

overly sentimental appeals

excessive use of emotion to distract the audience from facts

scare tactics

when a writer exaggerates possible dangers well beyond their statistical likelihood

slippery slope

when a writer exaggerates the likely consequences of an action, usually to frighten the audience

Allusion

a casual reference to another work of art, historical event, or person

Ambiguity

the state of having multiple meanings; an intentional or unintentional equivocation

Analogy

a form of reasoning in which one thing is inferred to be similar to another thing in a certain respect

Anecdote

a brief recounting of a relevant episode; usually to inject humor or develop a point

Aphorism

a terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle often in a clever way: "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

Apophasis

calling attention to something by dismissing it: "No one would suggest that those who are homeless elected to live on the streets willingly."

Apostrophe

the direct address of a non-person or an absent or imaginary person: "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour/England hath need of thee"; may also be a personified abstraction, especially as a digression in the course of a speech or composition: "So, I ask you, dear reader, what would you have me do?"

Bathos

overdone or insincere attempts at evoking pity or compassion, usually creating a comedic effect

Claim

also called assertion or proposition, an argument's main idea/position

Claim of fact

asserts something is true or not true

Claim of policy

proposes a change

Claim of value

argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong

Classical Oration

five-part argument

Introduction/Exordium

introduce the subject

Narration

factual info and background enough to establish the worthiness of addressing the issue

Confirmation

the proof

Refutation

addressing counterargument(s), bridge to conclusion

Conclusion/Peroration

satisfying conclusion, often includes pathos

Concession

the act of granting or yielding a particular point or fact that is part of another's argument or granting that an opposing argument has some merit

Connotation

extra cultural significance of a word or phrase in addition to its dictionary definition

Context

the circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text's production

Counterargument

set of reasons put forward to oppose an anticipated idea or theory

Deduction

logical process starting with a general principle (major premise), apply it to a specific case (a minor premise). A syllogism is an example of deductive logic

Denotation

The literal definition of a word

Diction

word choice in speech or writing

Didactic

teaching a specific lesson or moral; providing a model of correct behavior or thinking

Ellipsis

the omission of words or phrases, sometimes indicated by the use of " ... "

Epigraph

a short quotation, often used at the beginning of a work, section, or chapter to introduce a theme

Euphemism

the act or an example of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive: "The drone strike inflicted collateral damage."

Exigency

a case or situation that demands prompt action or remedy, that has urged the writer to begin to write an argument. (The CollegeBoard loves this word this year... for some unknown reason.)

Exposition

a mode of expression, its intention being to explain

Figurative language

any language that cannot be taken literally (like simile, metaphor, verbal irony, metonymy, etc.)

Genre

the category into which a literary work fits (drama, poetry, prose being the most general, but these may be further subdivided)

Hortative sentence (hortation)

one that urges, calls to action

Hyperbole

a figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect

Hypophora

a type of reasoning in which one or more questions are asked and answered by the same writer/speaker.

Induction

reasoning from particulars to universals; examples to conclusion

Infer

to draw a reasonable conclusion from information provided.

Imagery

word choice designed to appeal to one or more of the five senses

verbal irony

words used are the opposite of the intended meaning

situational irony

events turn out other than as expected

Juxtaposition

placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarity and/or difference.

Litotes

this is the strategy of understatement using two negative terms, often employed to provide subtle emphasis, frequently for ironic effect or to underline a passionate opinion: "The assassin was not unacquainted with danger."

Metanoia

the qualification of a statement to either diminish or strengthen its tone, as in "She was disturbed — make that appalled — by the spectacle." Traditionally, nay is often a keyword that sets up the shift, but no replaces it in modern usage except in facetious or whimsical writing: "You are the fairest flower in the garden — nay, in the entire meadow."

Narrative

a mode of expression, its intention being to tell a story

Paradox

the expression of seemingly contrary ideas that have an underlying truth or coexistence

Parody

the close imitation of style, usually exaggerating the features of the model for comedic effect

Pedantic

overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (connotation usually negative)

Point of view

the perspective from which the text is expressed

Polemic (polemical)

one who argues with hostility and generally does not concede opposing opinions have merit

Pun

a humorous play on the multiple meanings of a word or words: "You can tune a fiddle, but you can't tuna fish—unless you're a bass player."

Refutation

working to prove an argument false

Rhetoric

the art of effective or persuasive communication

Rhetorical appeals

techniques used to persuade an audience

Logos

logic, reasoning; rhetorical appeal pertaining to the content of the message

Pathos

a quality that arouses emotions (especially pity or sorrow); the rhetorical appeal concerned with how to reach an audience emotionally

Ethos

rhetorical appeal in which the author/speaker establishes trustworthiness of the audience; credibility

Rhetorical Question

a question asked solely to produce an effect and not to elicit a reply, as in "What is so rare as a day in June?"

Satire

a work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of human behavior by portraying it in an extreme way, often through the use of humor, and generally intended to point out a flaw and affect a change

Sentential (or Conjunctive) Adverbs

these single words or brief phrases emphasize the thought they precede, interrupt, or — rarely — follow. Examples include however, naturally, no doubt, and of course — and, in informal writing, phrases such as "you see."

Syllogism

a logical argument often expressed in this typical form: "All A is C; all B is A; therefore all B is C."

Symbol

an object or action that is what it is and also takes special significance for literary or rhetorical effect

Theme

what an artistic work suggests about life

Thesis

the expression of the author's point, meaning, or position

Tone

the author's attitude