CRJU 320 Research Methods Exam #1 (CSULB)

What is Social Science?

The use of scientific methods to investigate individuals, societies, and social processes. This also includes the investigation of criminology and criminal justice.

Errors in Reasoning (4)

Over-generalization // Selective Observation // Inaccurate Observation // Illogical Reasoning

Over-generalization

Assuming that the truth of one case is truth for all other cases.

Selective Observation

Choosing to look at things that already align with our beliefs or hypotheses.

Inaccurate Observation

Misunderstanding an observation.

Illogical Reasoning

Making conclusions or failing to make conclusions based on invalid or illogical assumptions.

The Scientific Method

Attempts to reduce errors in logic.

Observe > Hypothesis > Test & Collect Data > Analyze Results > Accept or Reject Hypothesis.

Motivations for Research (3)

Policy // Academic // Personal

Types of Research (4)

Descriptive // Exploratory // Explanatory // Evaluation

Descriptive Research

Describes the characteristics of the phenomena. Answers the "what" and "how", not "why".

Methods: Reports or surveys.

Exploratory Research

Research conducted on a subject with little to know previous knowledge of the subject. Large amounts of unstructured data.

Methods: Qualitative interviews and observations.

Explanatory Research

Identify the causes and sources of phenomena. Answers the "why".

Methods: Experiments

Evaluation Research

Identifies the process and effectiveness of programs and interventions.

Quantitative

Focus of numbers and categories.

Methods: Surveys and experiments.

Qualitative

Focus on capturing social life.

Methods: Interviews, participant observation, focus groups.

Mixed Methods

Combines qualitative and quantitative methods to answer questions and understand phenomena.

Method: Triangulation, the application of several methods to one study.

Weaknesses of Research

Research never leads to absolute truth. It may answer some questions, but it will also lead to more questions.

Research does not always have the tools necessary to investigate the questions asked.

Research Questions

Question that can be answered through studies and data collection.

What makes a GOOD research question?

1. Is clear, simple, and manageable.

2. Feasible, can be studied and experimented on with reasonable ease.

3. Impactful and relevant to modern study.

4. Grounded in existing, relevant literature.

Theory

Set of interrelated propositions that attempt to explain an aspect of reality.

The relationship of theory and research

Theory is the source of many research questions. It is a guide to what a study might expect to find on a certain topic.

Deductive Reasoning

General to the specific. Applying a theory to data.

Inductive Reasoning

Specific to the general. Applying data to a theory.

Constant

Factor that does not change or vary in a study.

Variable

Factor that can change or vary in a study.

Dependent Variable

A variable that is expected to change under the influence of the independent variable.

Independent Variable

A variable that is expected to change another variable.

Hypothesis

A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Derives from a research question.

Types of Validity (7)

Measurement // External // Causal // Face // Content // Criterion // Construct

Measurement Validity

When a measurement aligns with the expected calculations.

External Validity (Generalizability)

The extent to which the findings from your study can be applied outside of the study.

Causal Validity (Internal)

When the conclusion that A causes B is correct.

Face Validity

When a test/experiment is obviously relevant to the concept of the study.

Content Validity

The contents of a test cover the full range of a concept's meaning.

Criterion Validity

When a measure accurately compares to the outcome of another measure.

Construct Validity

When the study itself is relevant to the construct or theory it researches.

Types of Reliability (5)

Test-Retest // Inter-Item (Internal Consistency) // Alternate Forms // Split-Halves // Intra-Observer OR Inter-Observer.

Test-Retest Reliability

A measurement showing that measures of a phenomenon are highly correlated at two points in time.

Inter-Item Reliability

The correlation of multiple items used to measure a single concept.

Alternate Forms Reliability

Using different versions of the same question to test the reliability of the answers received.

Split Halves Reliability

Responses from two randomly selected halves of a sample are consistently similar.

Intra-Observer Reliability

Observation of different occasions of a study by ONE person.

Inter-Observer Reliability

Observation of ONE occasion of a study by MULTIPLE people.

The Relationship of Validity and Reliability

Both are improve the strength of a study. They do not go hand in hand. A measure can have one but lack the other. A good study should have both!

Research Ethics (3)

Informed Consent // Beneficence // Debriefing

Informed Consent

Research participants must be fully aware of all components of the research and legally and voluntarily agree to participate.

Beneficence

Weighing the harms and benefits of the study.

Debriefing

Explaining the experiment to the participants after the study, revealing all instances of deception (if used) and allowing the participants to ask questions.

Milgram Experiment

Study: Researchers had participants believe they were shocking an anonymous tester every time the tester answered a question wrong. Voltage would be increased every shock.

Problem: Unethical to have participants believe they were actually harming a person to the point of death. Mental strain and tension.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Study: U.S. Government allowed the spread of syphilis within a black community to observe if it affected blacks differently than whites.

Problem: They allowed hundreds to die for an answer that could have been found from only the first few deaths. Inherent racist tendencies as well.

Stanford Prison Experiment

Study: College students were voluntarily put into a prison simulation. Half were officers, half were prisoners. The 2-week long study ended in only the first 5 days after participants were experiencing cruel abuse and mental trauma.

Problem: Researchers allowed the participants to go too far.

Alice Goffman "On the Run" Study.

Study: Goffman lives in a well-known ghetto community for several years to study the people. She becomes apart of the community, and eventually takes part in a murder attempt against a gang that rivaled her friends.

Problem: Goffman committed the crime of attempted murder. She allowed her emotions and personal life to be ingrained within her observation-based professional study.

Conceptualization

Process of specifying what is meant by a term or idea.

Operationalization

Explaining the purpose of operations for a study.

Triangulation

Using multiple research methods for one study.

Levels of Measurement (4)

Nominal // Ordinal // Interval // Ratio

Nominal Measurement

Measuring by category or quality/attributes.

Ex. Grouping by gender, occupation, etc.

Ordinal Measurement

Measuring by order or rank.

Ex. 1st Place, Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree, etc.

Interval Measurement

Measuring by an interpretation of numbers and math. A zero value DOES represent something.

Ex. Temperature. 0 Degrees Fahrenheit does not mean an absence of temperature, it means freezing temperature.

Ratio Measurement

Measuring by fixed measuring units. Numbers are not interpreted, and zero values DO NOT represent anything.

Ex. Measurement of how many times I coughed in an hour.

Motivations for Reporting Research (3)

Advance Scientific Knowledge // Shape Social Policies // Organize Social Action.

Methods for Reporting Research (3)

Student Papers and Theses // Journal Articles // Applied Reports

Student Papers and Theses

Audience: A professor or committee of professors.

Journal Articles

Must go through the peer-review process.

Audience: Other academics and industry workers.

Applied Reports

Commissioned by government, corporation, or non-profit organization.

Other Methods for a General Public Audience.

Op-Eds // Non-academic articles // Ted-Talks // NPR and Media Interviews.

Sample

Subset of a larger population or group.

Population

A set of individuals we want to generalize our findings to.

Element

Individuals who make up a sample.

Enumeration Units

Units that contain one or more elements and are listed within the sampling frame. Used when a complete sampling frame is not available.

Ex. List of addresses rather than the names of all individuals living in a neighborhood.

Sampling Frame

List of all elements within a population.

Sampling Units

The units selected at each stage of a multi-stage sampling design.

Ex. Population: University Students

Enumeration Units: University Departments

Primary Sampling Units: Sample of University Departments

Secondary Sampling Units: Students from each Department.

Evaluating Samples

Samples should match the intended population of a study. Samples must be more concrete and explicit in order to have better generalizability.

Evaluating Generalizability (2 Types)

Sample Generalizability // Cross-Population Generalizability

Sample Generalizability

The ability to generalize from a sample to the population it represents.

Cross-Population Generalizability

The ability to generalize from one group or population to another.

3 Questions to Properly Assess Sample Quality

1. From what populations were the cases selected?

2. What method was used to select cases from this population?

3. Do the cases that are studied represent the population from which they were selected?

Representativeness

The degree to which a sample has the same proportion of characteristics as the population it represents.