PSYC 322: midterm 1

content for midterm

gerontology

scientific study of the process of aging

• relatively new multidisciplinary field

• helps undertsand aging trends

• predict future trajectories

• address current and future implications of aging on society

measures of life longevity

• life expectancy

• healthy life expectancy

• mortality rate

• survival rate

life expectancy

an estimation of how long someone will live

healthy life expectancy

an estimation of how long someone will live at “full" health”

• i.e. without long term diseas/illness

morality rate

number of deaths in a period in a population

survival rate

the percentage of a population that is expected to live after a certain point or incident/illness

• often used in context of illness

• how long you can expect to live when you are past a certain age or have a specific disease

what could explain the difference in variance between life expectancy and healthy life expectancy?

• genetics

• environment such as socioeconomic status

top 3 causes of deaths in females and males

• alzheimer disease and other dimentias

• ischaemic heart disease

• trachea, bronchus, lung cancers

key factors that are considered when looking at data related to aging

• continuity

• individuality

• survival

• aging =/= illness

continuity

life span perspective

• life is divided into two main stages: early and late

• early phase greatly influences how later phases are

features include:

• multidirectionality

• plasticity

• historicalcultural context

• multiple causation

multidirectionality

growth and decline throughout aging process

plasticity

capacity to change is not predetermined or set

• neuroplasticity

neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to rewire/create new connections thorughout lifespan

historical/cultural context

historical and/or cultural experiences throughout the lifespan can affect development

multiple causation

so many factors contribute to/affect development over the lifespan

individuality

as individuals age, differences are magnified due to many factors

• personality

• physical function/health

• life experience

• opportunities

• biological factors

longitudinal studies

• useful for observing continuity within the same individual/population

• useful for tracking changes based on individual differences

cross-sectional studies

• useful for observing potential differences between individuals/cohorts grouped by age

• useful for isolating potential factors that may explain differences in development

age effects

attributing the aging process to universal

cohort effects

attributing the aging process to specific (generational) factors

primary aging

normal disease-free development during adult aging

secondary aging

developmental changes related to disease, lifestyle, environment

tertiary aging 

rapid losses that occur right before death 

• terminal drop/mortality aging

• final stages of life 

personal aging

changes within an individual that reflects the passage of time on one’s development

social aging

effects of changing environment on an individual

• normative age-graded influences

• normative history-graded influences

• non-normative influences 

normative age-graded influences

experiences that one’s culture and historical context attach to certain points in the lifecycle

• ex. geting married at 13 in 1800s

normative history-graded infuences

events that most people in a similar place/time experience simultaneously 

• ex. covid pandemic 

non-normative influences

random or rare events that is significant to an individual but isn’t universally experienced

• ex. winning the lottery 

how can we operationalize age?

• chronological age

• perceived age

• biological age

• psychological age

• sociocultural age

biological age

function of bodily functioning, organs, fitness, failty indices, etc.

psychological age

level of psychological functioning and adaptability

sociocultural age

related to social roles/norms that an individual fills in relation to others in society

biological theories of aging

• programmed aging theories

• metabolic theories

• random error theories

programmed aging theories 

aging and death are encoded within our genes

• genetic timing mechanisms

• declines in physiological function

evidence:

• cell senescence

• species-specific life spans

cell senescence

stops the division of cell division

• irreversible cessation

• biological process to reduce risk of uncontrolled cell proliferation (can lead to cancer)

• bioproduct of shortening telomeres 

results of cell senescence 

• thickening of artery walls

• arthritis

• skin changes

• neurodegeneration

telemerase

enzyme that can lengthen/preserve telomere length

• cells withtelomerase can slow aging process

hayflict limit

number of times a cell can divide before cell division stops

cells without hayflict limit/express telomerase

• stem cells

• germ cells

• cancer cells 

metabolic theories

organisms have a finite amount of energy to expend in lifespan

• one’s metabolism → longevity

  • rate of living theories

evidence: caloric restriction studies 

caloric restriction studies

restricting caloric intake without starvation can slow metabolism which slows the aging process

• generally less energy expenditure → longevity

• generally, bigger animals live longer

criticisms of caloric restriction studies

• complex intracellular processes

• specific mechanisms that impact aging is unclear

• operationalizing caloric restriction (when/what/how much is restricted)

• is it worth practicing CR if you’re sacrificing wuality of life?

random error theories 

aging is not pre-programmed, it is random

• accumulation of random, unpredictable damage to an organism’s cells and molecules over time

wear and tear theory

being worn down gradually by environmental factors

• which then wears down our biological features and so forth

psychological theories

• identity process theory

• selective compensation with optimizaion model

• ageism 

identity process theory

identity continues to change dynamically in adulthood

• less about why but HOW WE ADAPT to aging changes

• events can fundamentally change how we view ourselves 

• threshold experience 

identity

current view of oneself

threshold experience

changes due to aging

• ex. illness, physical changes due to age

• can lead to identity assimilation, identity balance, or identity accomodation

• some thresholds carry more weight (spectrum)

identity assimilation

denial, preservation of positive identity

• ex. denying age is making one look older/different

identity balance 

healthy in-between

• the goal

• changing understanding of identity and accepting it 

identity accomodation

changing approach to accomodate threshold experience

selective compensation with optimization model

as we decline with age, steps can be taken to compensate and maintain optimal performance for high priority items

• while sacrificing lesser priority items

• psychological approach to functional aging 

what are the three components of selective compensation with optimization model?

selection

• choosing a goal to prioritize

optimization

• choosing which resources to allocate to achieve goals

compensation

• balancing/weighing costs to maintain a level of functioning

selective compensation with optimization model

• ex. early adulthood: starting a family

selection

• starting a family

optimization

• physical energy, external resources (eg. daycare), financial situation

compensation

• financial trade-offs (less vacations/extra expenses), time off work

ageism

a set of beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups based on their chronological age

• old age associated with disease and decline

• being part of an age group leads to assumptions of advantage/disadvanage

• ageist beliefs are internalized → behaviour affected 

results of implicit ageism study

• positive implicit associations highest for children

• negative associations for older adults

sociocultural theories: first generation theories

simple, binary, functional view of aging

• disengagement theory

• activity theory

sociocultural theories: second generation

more focused on the individual expereince

• contuity theory

• bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective

sociocultural theories: third generation

expansion on individuality

• focus on social structures, lifespan perspective 

disengagement theory

coping with old age is done through gradual and voluntary disengagement from social roles and activities

• mutual and beneficial withdrawal of individuals and society

• disengagement is normative, universal and inevitabl

• ex. retiring is inevitable and normal

criticism of disengagement theory

• feeds into agism

• not always normative, universal, and inevitable

• unfalsifiable

• disregards individuality

• too much focus on social normative influences

activity theory

with aging comes a reduction in social responsibility, leading to reduction in life satisfaction

• new roles, friendships, and activities established later in life helps sustain life satisfaction

menec (2003) findings of activity theory

• greater overall activity was related to greater happiness, better function, and reduced mortality

• more solitary activities were related only to higher levels of happiness

continuity theory

people who age normally (primary aging) attempt to maintain both itnernal and external continuity to past to preserve balance in self-image

• too much continuity → unpredictable, unstable

• too much continuity → boring, stagnancy

criticisms of continuity theory

• mostly considers primary healthy aging and largely ignores secondary/tertiary aging 

• ignores the impact of social structures on aging

• prevents the possibility of continuity

  • ageism

  • socioeconomic factors

  • access to healthcare

bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective

a person’s development is shaped by their environment

• from microsystems → macrosystems, chronosystems

third generation of sociocultural theories

aging is not just a process suddenly experienced in later life, but is a product of an entire lfietime of experiences

• more conscious and adaptive choices rather than aging “happening” to you

predatory journals

poor or dishonest publishing practices with little to no peer review process 

impact factor 

metric that measures how often the average article of a journal is cited throughout the scientific literature

• higher IF