World History Political Revolutions

John Locke

Believed people are born with natural rights (life, liberty, property) and government exists to protect them; if it fails, people can overthrow it.

Natural Rights

Rights people are born with that cannot be taken away, including life, liberty, and property.

Social Contract

An agreement where people give government power in exchange for protection of their rights.

Thomas Hobbes

Believed people are selfish and need a strong, absolute ruler to maintain order.

Hobbes vs Locke

Hobbes supported absolute rule for stability; Locke supported limited government to protect rights.

Montesquieu

Believed in separating government power into branches to prevent tyranny.

Separation of Powers

Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches with checks and balances.

Voltaire

Supported freedom of speech, religion, and expression; opposed censorship.

Censorship

Government control or banning of ideas, speech, or writing.

Cesare Beccaria

Argued accused people have rights, torture is wrong, and punishment should fit the crime.

Beccaria’s influence

Inspired ideas of fair trials and protection from cruel and unusual punishment.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Argued women deserve equal rights and education.

Habeas Corpus

Law requiring a legal reason and process before imprisoning someone.

Roundheads

Supporters of Parliament in the English Civil War.

Cavaliers

Supporters of King Charles I.

Cause of English Civil War

Conflict between Parliament and the king over power and taxation.

Petition of Right

Required king to get Parliament’s approval for taxes and protected citizens from illegal imprisonment.

Oliver Cromwell

Led Parliament’s forces and defeated King Charles I.

Outcome of English Civil War

Charles I was executed and the monarchy was abolished temporarily.

James II

Catholic king whose rule alarmed Protestants.

Glorious Revolution

Bloodless overthrow of James II; William and Mary took power.

William and Mary

Agreed to rule as constitutional monarchs.

English Bill of Rights

Limited the monarchy and protected citizens’ rights.

Constitutional Monarchy

A system where a monarch’s power is limited by law.

Three Estates

Clergy (First), Nobility (Second), and everyone else (Third Estate).

Problem with Estates System

First and Second Estates had privileges and paid little or no taxes.

Financial Crisis in France

Heavy debt from wars and royal spending.

Bad Harvests

Caused food shortages and rising bread prices.

Bourgeoisie

Middle class that wanted political power.

Estates-General

Meeting of representatives from all three estates.

Cahiers de doléances

Lists of complaints written by the people.

Tennis Court Oath

Third Estate vowed to create a constitution.

Storming of the Bastille

Symbolic beginning of the French Revolution.

National Assembly

New government formed by the Third Estate.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Document stating liberty, equality, and natural rights.

Louis XVI

King executed during the French Revolution.

Marie Antoinette

Queen executed during the French Revolution.

Guillotine

Execution device used during the Revolution.

Reign of Terror

Period when thousands were executed to protect the Revolution.

Committee of Public Safety

Government body with near-absolute power.

Robespierre

Leader who justified the Reign of Terror.

Jacobins

Radical political group.

Girondins

Moderate political group.

September Massacres

Mob killings of prisoners suspected of opposing the Revolution.

Purpose of the Terror

Eliminate enemies and defend the Revolution.

End of the Terror

Robespierre was arrested and executed.

Coup d’état

Sudden overthrow of government.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Military leader who took control of France.

Consul for Life

Title Napoleon gave himself.

Emperor of France

Title Napoleon took in 1804.

Napoleonic Code

Simplified laws, ended estate system, allowed religious freedom, and established equality before law.

Continental System

Economic blockade to weaken Britain.

Peninsular War

War in Spain that weakened Napoleon.

Invasion of Russia

1812 disaster that destroyed Napoleon’s army.

Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon’s final defeat.

Elba

Island Napoleon was first exiled to.

St. Helena

Island where Napoleon spent his final years.

Saint Domingue

French colony that became Haiti.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian slave revolt.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Defeated French forces and secured Haiti’s independence.

Haitian Revolution

Only successful slave revolt; Haiti gained independence.

Simón Bolívar

Led independence movements in South America.

Father Miguel Hidalgo

Started the Mexican independence movement.

Prince Dom Pedro

Declared Brazil’s independence.

Peninsulares

Spaniards born in Spain who held power.

Creoles

Spaniards born in colonies; wealthy but lacked power.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Native ancestry.

Mulattos

People of mixed European and African ancestry.

Cause of Latin American Revolutions

Enlightenment ideas, inequality, and weakened European control.

What is common to all revolutions?

Unfair systems, anger among people, and desire for change.

Common causes of revolutions

Inequality, economic crisis, weak leadership, and Enlightenment ideas.

Common outcomes of revolutions

New governments, increased rights, instability, and power shifts.

Most impactful Enlightenment ideas

Natural rights, social contract, separation of powers, freedom of speech, fair justice.

How Enlightenment ideas inspired revolutions

They justified overthrowing unfair rulers and creating rights-based governments.

Difference between moderate and radical phases

Moderates wanted reform; radicals wanted complete change.

Why the Reign of Terror happened

Fear of enemies and belief violence was needed to protect the Revolution.

How Napoleon ended the Revolution

He took control and replaced unstable governments with strong leadership.