Operant and classical conditioning

Neurons and learning

Neurons constantly make new connections, allowing associations to form. This ability is evolutionarily advantageous.

Innate learning

no learning

Imprinting learning

some learning

observational/social learning

earning without teaching

Intentional teaching

unique to humans

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences of behavior. Actions followed by rewards or punishments shape future behavior.

Thorndike's Law of Effect (1898)

Behaviors with satisfying outcomes are more likely to repeat, while those with discomforting outcomes are less likely.

Reinforcers

Reinforcers increase responding. Can be positive (adding stimulus) or negative (removing stimulus).

Punishers

punishers decrease responding. Can be positive (adding stimulus) or negative (removing stimulus).

Shaping behavior

Reinforcing small steps that gradually approach the desired behavior (e.g., teaching pets tricks, dolphin hoop jump).

B.F. Skinner and the Skinner Box

Chamber where subjects press levers/chains for consequences. Allowed repeated trials and the study of reinforcement schedules.

Extinction in operant conditioning

Conditioned behaviors fade if not reinforced, but can reappear faster if reinforcement returns.

Reinforcement schedules

Rules that determine when reinforcement is given. Predictable schedules = less effective; unpredictable schedules = very effective and resistant to extinction.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus after a behavior, which increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again (e.g., sheldon giving penny the chocolates).

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior, which increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again (e.g., fastening your seatbelt to stop the car alarm).

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior happening again (e.g., touching a hot stove and feeling pain).

Negative punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus after a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior happening again (e.g., losing phone privileges after breaking curfew).

Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Produces high, steady responding with a small post-reinforcement pause ("break and run" pattern). Getting a gold star for doing chores

Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule

Reinforcement after a varying number of responses. Produces high, continuous responding with no pause. Very resistant to extinction. Example: Slot machine.

Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time. Produces slow learning, post-reinforcement pause, and "scallop" pattern. Not resistant to extinction. Example: Paycheck.

Variable Interval (VI) Schedule

Reinforcement after varying amounts of time. Produces slow, steady responding with no pause. Very resistant to extinction. Example: Checking social media.

Negative Reinforcement Trap

When removal of an aversive stimulus reinforces unwanted behavior. Example: Toddler cries in grocery store, parent gives in, reinforcing crying.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Used in substance abuse treatment, education (beyond gold stars), and animal training. Helps explain learning and behavior modification.

Classical Conditioning

Learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

Pavlov's Dog Experiment

Dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a stimulus (researcher entering room) after it was paired with food. Demonstrated classical conditioning.

Casinos and Conditioning

Slot machines use both operant (reinforcement schedules) and classical conditioning (flashing lights, sounds) to maintain gambling behavior.

John Watson & Little Albert

Paired a white rat (neutral stimulus) with a loud noise (US), producing fear (CR). Showed humans can develop conditioned emotional responses.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural reflex or response to the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that has not been paired with the US and elicits no response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus (NS) that, after pairing with the US, triggers a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Exposure Therapy (Classical Conditioning)

In vivo exposure to gradually more intense versions of a phobic stimulus; client starts with what they can manage and builds up over sessions.

Graduated Extinction

A learning process where a response learned for one stimulus also occurs for other stimuli with similar characteristics.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after time has passed without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

PTSD and Classical Conditioning

PTSD is a learned fear disorder where trauma leads to generalized fear in daily life; extinction therapy can help unlearn these associations.

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning = automatic connections between stimuli

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning = increase behaviors that bring resources or rewards.