Unit Zero Vocab: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

Test: October 1st and the 6th

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Humanistic Psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

Behavioral Psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Socio-Cultural Psychology

The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis

Cultural Norms

Shared expectations, rules, values, beliefs, and behaviors that are considered normal within a specific group of society

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory information

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe that after learning an outcome, one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-Knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Overconfidence

The tendency to be confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Experimental

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes (dependent)

Case Study (non-experimental)

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Correlation (non-experimental)

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other

Meta-analysis (non-experimental)

A quantitative technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to form a single, objective conclusion

Naturalistic Observation (non-experimental)

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. Such predictions specify what results would support the theory and what results would disconfirm it

Falsifiability

A theory or hypothesis is considered falsifiable if it can be proven false through evidence or experimentation.

Operational definitions

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment

Independent Variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

confounding variables

a factor other than the factor being studies that might influence a study's results

Placebo

Results based on the expectation of the treatment

Single-blind

a procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental conditions under which they are operating

Double-blind

a procedure in which both the participants and the experimenters interacting with them are unaware of the particular experimental conditions

Sample

A subset of a population of interest that is selected for study to make inferences about the population. It is important to ensure that a sample is representative of the larger population

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Representative Sample

The selection of study units (participants, homes, schools) from a larger group in an unbiased way

Random Sampling

a process for selecting a sample of study participants from a larger population of eligible individuals.

Convenience Sampling

Any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but is rather governed by chance or ready availability

Sampling Bias

A systematic and directional error is involved in the choice of units, cases, or participants from a larger group for study.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the groups

generalizability

The extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample apply to a broader population

social desirability bias

The bias or tendency of individuals to present themselves in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

qualitative structured

Referring to a variable, study, or analysis that involves a method of inquiry based on descriptive data without the use of numbers

quantative

involving the use of a numerical measurement system to analyze data

peer review

the evaluation of scientific or academic work, such as research or articles submitted to journals for publication, by other qualified professionals practicing in the same field

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

variables

variables, or factors, contribute to a result. In non-experimental research, they are not manipulated or controlled

directionality problem (correlation)

in correlation research, the situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect

third variable problem (correlation)

when two variables, a and b, are found to be positively or negatively correlated, it does not necessarily mean that one causes the other

Survey Technique

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

What is self-report bias?

A methodological problem that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

What can cause self-report bias?

People may not give fully correct answers because they do not know the full answer or seek to make a good impression.

Institutional Review Board

A committee named by an agency or institution to review research proposals originating within that agency for ethical acceptability and compliance with the organization's codes of conduct. They help protect research participants and are mandatory at any US institution receiving federal funds for research

Informed Concent

An ethical principal that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose wheather they wish to participate

Informed Assent

An ethical principal that involves obtaining agreement to participate in a study from participants (minors) who are not legally able to provide informed consent by providing them with informed information about the study to emprehend what their participation involves

Protection from harm

An ethical principle that requires researchers to protect and create safeguards for participants from physical, mental, and/or emotional harm

Confidentiality

An ethical principal that requires researches to limit the disclosure of a participant’s identifiable information, including unauthorized access to information they revealed in surveys

Deception

Any distortion of withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others

research confederates

in an experimental situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment

Debriefing

the process of providing participants with a fuller explanation of the study, after it has completed; including its purpose and any deceptions

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

The most frequently occurring scores in a ditrubtion

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distrubition

Normal Curve (with percentages of distributions across the curve)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer at the extremes

Variation

In statistics, the degree of variance or fispersion (spread) of values that is obtained for a specific variable 

Skewness

The degree to which a set of scores, measurements, or other numbers are asymmetrically distrubuted around a central point

Bimodal Distribution

A set of scores with two peaks or modes around which values tend to cluster, such that the frequencies at first increast and then decrease around each peak

Standard Deviation

A measure of the variability of a set of scores or values within a group, indicating how narrowly or broadly they deviate from the mean

Percentile Rank

A statistical measure used to indicate the relative standing of a score within a group

Progression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extremely high or extremely low scores to fall back (regress) upon retesting over time

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables

Correlation Coefficient 

A numerical index reflecting the degree of linear relationship between two variables.

• Between +1 and -1

Effect Size

A statistical measure of the magnitude, strength, or meaningfulness of a relationship between two variables. Interpreted as indicating the prctical significance of a research finding.

Statistical Significance

The degree to which a research outcome cannot resonably be attributed to the operation of chance or random factors