AS Level Psychology: The Cognitive Approach

100 Question and Answer flashcards covering key concepts, methodology, results, evaluations, and debates from Andrade (doodling), Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), and Pozzulo et al. (line-ups).

What is the first main assumption of the Cognitive approach in psychology?

Information is processed through the same route in all humans: input – process – output, in a similar way to how information is processed by a computer.

What is the second main assumption of the Cognitive approach in psychology?

People have individual differences in their cognitive processing, such as attention, language, thinking, and memory, which can also help to explain behaviour and emotion.

How is memory defined in Andrade's study on doodling?

Memory is defined as the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information (including sights, sounds, and smells), and the process of retaining this information over a long period of time.

What is incidental memory?

Incidental memory is the memory of information you have not been asked to remember or are not focused on, meaning the information is remembered unintentionally.

How is attention defined in Andrade's study?

Attention is the process of focusing on a particular piece of information or task.

What is selective attention?

Selective attention is the process of focusing or concentrating on information that is important while blocking out irrelevant information.

According to the background of Andrade's study, how might doodling impair task performance?

Doodling may impair performance by moving concentration away from the primary task.

According to Andrade, how might doodling help us to concentrate better?

Doodling may help us concentrate by increasing arousal and alertness and reducing daydreaming, which decreases concentration on a task.

On what specific type of tasks is doodling thought to especially help concentration?

On tasks that are not very interesting (i.e. low arousal).

What were the two main aims of Andrade's study?

1. To investigate whether doodling while listening improves attention/concentration.
2. To investigate whether doodling while listening improves recall.

What research method and experimental design were used in Andrade's study?

A laboratory experiment with an independent measures design and random allocation.

What was the monitoring task assigned to participants in Andrade's study?

Participants listened to a pretend telephone message about a party and had to pay attention and write down the names of people who were able to attend the party.

What type of memory test was administered after the audio recording in Andrade's study?

A surprise memory test.

What was the independent variable (IV) in Andrade's study?

Whether the participants were allowed to doodle (shading lines of shapes on A4 paper) or not while listening to the pretend telephone message.

How was monitoring accuracy operationalised as a dependent variable in Andrade's study?

As the number of correct names recorded out of $8$.

How was monitoring performance score operationalised in Andrade's study?

As the number of correct names remembered minus false alarms (wrong answers).

How was memory for monitored information operationalised in Andrade's study?

As the number of correct names recalled out of $8$ after false alarms were deducted.

How was memory for incidental information operationalised in Andrade's study?

As the number of correct place names recalled out of $8$.

What was the sample size and gender ratio in Andrade's study?

Total sample size of $40$ participants, consisting of $35$ women and $5$ men.

How many participants were placed in the doodling condition versus the control condition in Andrade's study?

$20$ participants in the doodling condition and $20$ participants in the control condition.

What was the demographic background of participants in Andrade's study?

Participants aged $18$–$55$ years old who were members of the University of Plymouth participant panel.

What sampling technique was used in Andrade's study, and how were participants recruited?

Opportunity sampling; researchers asked participants who had just finished another experiment if they would stay for another study.

Why did researchers recruit participants for Andrade's study immediately after they finished another experiment?

They hoped that recruiting them right after another experiment would increase the likelihood of boredom.

What sheets of paper were provided to the experimental group and control group in Andrade's study?

The experimental group received A4 paper printed with rows of shapes to shade; the control group received lined paper with no shapes to shade.

What was the duration of the audio recording used in Andrade's study?

$$2.5\,min$$

How many party-goers were mentioned as coming to the party in the telephone message in Andrade's study?

$8$ people.

What were the 'lures' mentioned in the audio recording of Andrade's study?

Three people and a cat who could not come to the party.

How many place names were mentioned in the audio recording in Andrade's study?

$8$ place names.

How long after listening to the audio tape did the surprise memory test take place in Andrade's study?

$1\,min$ after listening to the tape.

What two things were participants required to recall in the surprise memory test in Andrade's study?

The names of the party-goers and the place names.

What standardized controls were applied to all participants in Andrade's study?

All participants heard the same $2.5\,min$ tape in the same room and were given standardized instructions before listening.

How was counterbalancing used in the surprise memory test of Andrade's study and why?

Half the participants recalled names first and the other half recalled places first to avoid order effects.

What deception was involved in Andrade's study?

Participants were told that they did not need to remember anything on the tape, which was not true.

Which ethical issue arose directly as a consequence of deception in Andrade's study?

Informed consent could not be given.

What was the mean number of names accurately recalled by doodlers versus non-doodlers in Andrade's study?

Doodlers accurately recalled a mean of $7.8$ names, whereas non-doodlers recalled a mean of $7.1$ names.

What was the standard deviation for names accurately recalled by doodlers versus non-doodlers in Andrade's study?

Standard deviation was $0.4$ for doodlers and $1.1$ for non-doodlers.

How many participants scored full marks ($8/8$) for recalling names in the doodling group versus the control group?

$15/20$ in the doodling group scored full marks compared to $9/20$ in the control group.

How many participants made false alarms in the doodling group versus the control group in Andrade's study?

$1$ person in the doodling group made false alarms compared to $5$ people in the control group.

What was the mean monitoring performance score for doodlers versus non-doodlers in Andrade's study?

Mean score was $7.7$ for doodlers and $6.9$ for non-doodlers.

What was the standard deviation for the monitoring performance score in doodlers versus non-doodlers?

Standard deviation was $0.6$ for doodlers and $1.3$ for non-doodlers.

By what percentage was total recall higher for doodlers compared to non-doodlers in Andrade's study?

Total recall was $29\%$ higher for doodlers ($7.5$) than for the control group ($5.8$).

What was the average number of false alarms made across both groups in Andrade's study?

The average number of false alarms was low at $0.3$ for both groups.

What were the two primary conclusions of Andrade's study?

1. Doodling improves concentration during boring listening tasks.
2. Doodling improves memory, even for information we have not intentionally tried to store.

What is a main strength of Andrade's study in terms of reliability?

It used a highly standardised procedure (same tape, same room, standardised instructions) which can be easily replicated to test for reliability.

Why is objectivity noted as a weakness in Andrade's study regarding misheard words?

Misheard words (e.g. writing Greg instead of Craig) were counted as correct, introducing subjectivity into answer coding.

How did Andrade evaluate validity regarding deception detection, and what were the findings?

Andrade checked if participants detected deception ($18\%$ said they had); re-analysing data without their scores yielded the same results.

Why should findings from Andrade's study be generalized to males with caution?

Because there were significantly more females ($87.5\%$) than males ($12.5\%$) in the sample.

How does Andrade's study support situational explanations in psychology?

It shows that attention and memory are affected by situational factors (such as being allowed to doodle), proving cognitive performance is not always fixed and stable.

How is Theory of Mind (ToM) defined in the study by Baron-Cohen et al.?

Theory of mind is the ability to determine the mental state of ourselves and other people.

What are the two stages of Theory of Mind as described by Baron-Cohen et al.?

1. What? Identifying a person's mental state (e.g. 'He feels sad…').
2. Why? Understanding the context of that mental state (e.g. '…because he lost his ball').

What is a 'theory of mind deficit'?

A condition where individuals (such as those with autism spectrum disorders) do not have a fully developed theory of mind.

How is social sensitivity defined in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Social sensitivity is the ability to identify and understand social cues and contexts when interacting with others, referring to how well one understands other people's feelings.

Why is it difficult to develop cognitive dysfunction tests for adults with high-functioning autism?

Because it is difficult to develop tests sensitive enough to detect cognitive dysfunction in adults with typical intelligence but impaired social understanding.

Describe the original 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' test.

It was a test for adult social sensitivity/theory of mind consisting of $25$ photographs of eyes of famous actors, where participants selected one of two words describing the mental state.

How did adults with high-functioning autism (HFA) or Asperger syndrome (AS) perform on the original Eyes Test?

They scored significantly lower than matched controls.

What was the answer-option problem with the original Eyes Test, and how was it solved in the Revised Eyes Test?

Problem: Each item had only two answers ($68\%$ needed to exceed chance). Solution: Increased items from $25$ to $36$ and possible answers from two to four.

What was the mental state complexity problem in the original Eyes Test, and how was it solved?

Problem: Basic mental states (e.g. happy, angry) were used which young children can identify. Solution: Included only complex mental states (e.g. contempt).

How was the problem of eye direction solved in the Revised Eyes Test?

Items where eye direction could be used to identify mental states (e.g. noticing) were excluded from the new test.

How was gender balance improved in the Revised Eyes Test compared to the original?

The original had more female than male faces; the Revised Eyes Test used the same number of male and female faces.

How was foil difficulty modified in the Revised Eyes Test?

The original test used opposite foils (e.g. sad vs happy), which was too easy. The Revised test increased similarity between the target word and the three foils.

How did the researchers solve the issue of participant word comprehension in the Revised Eyes Test?

The test was presented with a glossary for participants to clarify word meanings.

What was Aim 1 of the study by Baron-Cohen et al.?

To investigate whether scores on the Autism Quotient (AQ) and the Revised Eyes Test scores are negatively correlated.

What was Aim 2 of the study by Baron-Cohen et al.?

To trial the Revised Eyes Test with adults with high-functioning autism (HFA) and Asperger syndrome (AS).

What specific predictions were made regarding neurotypical males vs females on the Revised Eyes Test and AQ in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Females were predicted to score higher than males on the Revised Eyes Test, while males were predicted to score lower on the Revised Eyes Test and higher on the AQ.

What research method and design were used in Baron-Cohen et al.?

An experiment with an independent measures design, as well as a correlation.

How was data collected for the Autism Quotient (AQ) in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Via a questionnaire containing $50$ closed questions answered on four-point rating scales.

How was data collected for the Revised Eyes Test in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Participants completed $36$ black and white photographs of eyes, each offering four possible answers.

What were the independent variables in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Whether participants had HFA/AS or not, and whether they were male or female.

What were the dependent variables/co-variables in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Test scores on the Revised Eyes Test and the AQ (Autism Quotient).

Describe Group 1 sample size, demographics, and sampling technique in Baron-Cohen et al.

Size: $15$ male adults with HFA/AS from the UK. Sampling technique: Volunteer sample via adverts in the National Autistic Society (NAS) magazine and support groups.

Describe Group 2 sample size, demographics, and sampling technique in Baron-Cohen et al.

Size: $122$ neurotypical adults from the UK with varied occupations/education. Sampling technique: Opportunity sample from community/education classes and libraries.

Describe Group 3 sample size, demographics, and sampling technique in Baron-Cohen et al.

Size: $103$ ($53$ males, $50$ females) neurotypical undergraduate students from Cambridge University. Sampling technique: Opportunity sample.

Describe Group 4 sample size, demographics, and sampling technique in Baron-Cohen et al.

Size: $14$ general population controls matched on IQ to Group 1. Sampling technique: Random sample.

During initial item selection with 8 judges in Baron-Cohen et al., what were the criteria for accepting or rejecting items?

Accepted if target word was picked by $5$ of the $8$ judges; rejected if the same foil was picked by more than $2$ judges.

When trialling items on Groups 2 and 3 in Baron-Cohen et al., what criteria determined item acceptance?

Accepted if $50\%$ of the $225$ participants picked the target word and no more than $25\%$ picked the same foil.

How many items were rejected after trialling on Groups 2 and 3 in Baron-Cohen et al., leaving how many final items?

$4$ items were rejected, leaving $36$ items on the Revised Eyes Test.

What extra task did Group 1 (HFA/AS) complete during testing in Baron-Cohen et al.?

They identified the gender of the people in the photographs.

What standardized controls were maintained for the Revised Eyes Test images in Baron-Cohen et al.?

All photos were the same size, in black and white, with four options ($1$ target, $3$ foils), presented in quiet conditions with a glossary.

What psychological harm risk was identified in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Lack of word/emotion understanding could cause distress or embarrassment; extreme scores in Groups 2–4 might require referral for detailed assessment.

What correlation coefficient was found between AQ scores and Revised Eyes Test scores across the groups?

A negative correlation coefficient of $-0.53$ across all three groups.

How did Group 1 perform on the Revised Eyes Test and gender recognition task in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Group 1 scored significantly lower on the Revised Eyes Test than other groups, but showed no impairments on the gender recognition task.

How did Group 1 score on the AQ compared to Groups 3 and 4 in Baron-Cohen et al.?

Group 1 scored significantly higher on the AQ than Groups 3 and 4.

What main conclusions were drawn about the Revised Eyes Test in Baron-Cohen et al.?

It is a more sensitive test for social intelligence than the original Eyes Test and can measure the severity of autistic traits due to negative correlation with AQ.

What is a weakness of validity in Baron-Cohen et al.'s Eyes Test?

Pictures of eyes are static and do not reflect real-life human emotions, which involve movement, fast expression changes, and non-verbal cues.

How is eyewitness testimony (EWT) defined in the study by Pozzulo et al.?

Descriptions provided by people present at a crime/accident scene about what they saw/heard/smelt, used in investigations or legal proceedings.

What is a false positive response in relation to eyewitness testimony?

When a witness picks out a person from a line-up and claims they were present at the crime scene when they were not.

Why did Pozzulo et al. suggest false positive responses occur in children?

Due to social pressure (such as wanting to please an authority figure/interviewer) rather than poor memory.

According to background literature in Pozzulo et al., how do children and adults compare on line-up tasks?

Children and adults produce similar correct identification rates on target-present line-ups, but children struggle to correctly reject target-absent line-ups.

What were the main aims of Pozzulo et al.'s study?

To investigate whether children are less able to recognize human faces than adults and make more false positive identifications in target-present vs target-absent line-ups with human vs cartoon faces.

Why is the research design in Pozzulo et al. described as a mixed design?

Some aspects used independent measures (comparing children vs adults) and other aspects used repeated measures (all participants viewed both line-up types and face types).

What questionnaire form was used for data collection in Pozzulo et al.?

A demographic and cartoon watching form measuring age, gender, cartoon watching duration, and familiarity with target cartoons.

How did children vs adults indicate their choices during line-up testing in Pozzulo et al.?

Children pointed to photos on a PowerPoint; adults indicated choices on a matching sheet.

What were the independent variables in Pozzulo et al.?

1. Age (children 4–7 years vs adults 17–30)
2. Target face type (familiar cartoon vs unfamiliar human)
3. Line-up type (target-present vs target-absent).

What were the dependent variables in Pozzulo et al.?

Correct identification rates for target-present line-ups and correct rejection rates for target-absent line-ups.

Describe the sample sizes and demographics for children and adults in Pozzulo et al.

$59$ children (aged $4$–$7$ from three private schools in Canada) and $53$ adults (aged $17$–$30$ from an Eastern Ontario University participant pool).

Which familiar cartoon characters were featured in the videos of Pozzulo et al.?

Dora and Diego.

What questions were asked during the filler task in Pozzulo et al.?

'What did the cartoon character/person look like?' and 'Do you remember anything else?'.

Describe the composition of photo line-ups used in Pozzulo et al.

Four cropped black and white headshots; target-present had $1$ target photo and $3$ foils, while target-absent had $4$ foils.

What success rates did children achieve in target-present line-ups for cartoon vs human faces in Pozzulo et al.?

Children achieved a success rate of $0.99$ for familiar cartoon faces and $0.23$ for unfamiliar human faces.

What success rates did adults achieve in target-present line-ups for cartoon vs human faces in Pozzulo et al.?

Adults achieved a success rate of $0.95$ for familiar cartoon faces and $0.66$ for unfamiliar human faces.