zoology exam review

majority of terms uploaded with notes!

Theory (in science)

An explanation based on scientific evidence

Organic evolution includes

how organisms change over time

Correct order for the steps of the scientific method

Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment, Evaluate Data, Conclusions

Hypothesis

A statement proposing an explanation, which can be supported or refuted by experimentation

Pseudoscience

Beliefs or ideas that are falsely described as science

Inductive

When specific observations and experiments allow scientists to form a general idea

Deduction

If the general principals of an existing theory are used to answer a question about specific observations

Controls

Factors that are not being investigated but might affect the outcome experiment can be kept constant using

Bias

Subconscious or conscious prejudices of the experimenter

Independent variable

Is manipulated in the experiment

Energy

The capacity to do work

Exocytosis

When a cytoplasmic vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, expelling its contents outside the cell

Endoplasmic reticulum

Where carbohydrates and lipids are manufactured, and proteins are made that will eventually be exported from the cell

DNA

Not part of the endomembrane system

Part of the endomembrane system

ER, transport vesicle, secretory vesicle, golgi

Plasma membrane

Made up of phospholipid

Lactose

Made of a glucose and galactose bonded together to form a disaccharide

Expressed

When a gene is being used to make something in the cell

Phenotype

Gene expression often results in an observable characteristic of the organism

RNA polymerase

When “turned on”, a gene is transcribed by the enzyme

Genotype

The genetic instructions to make the lactase enzyme

Eukaryote cells

DNA is contained within the nucleus and it contains the instructions for operating the cell

Enzymes

Help to speed up chemical reactions in cells or tissues

Gene

A unit of DNA with information to influence an organism’s features (like a recipe)

Messenger RNA

The genetic instructions in DNA are copied by making

Ribosomes

Like the “workbench” for building proteins. They use the genetic instruction in mRNA to put amino acids together. This is called translation

Enhancer

Influences Lactase Gene expression

Heritable features

Those passed down from parent to offspring

Sexual reproduction

Occurs when male and female organisms combine their DNA to make offspring

Mutations

Changes in the DNA sequence that occur naturally

Chromosome

The genetic information of a cell is packaged into a macro molecular complex

Homologous chromosomes

Each parent has 2 sets of chromosomes (diploid=2n) in most of their cells

Gametes

Contain one of each chromosome (haploid =1n)

Dominant

When only one of the two alleles contributes to the phenotype

Incomplete dominance

When both alleles combine to make a mixed, intermediate phenotype

Codominance

When both alleles are expressed equally

Gene pool

All of the genes within a population

Genetic drift

Chance events that may influence gene frequency

Chi-square test

Can be used to compare the frequency of a phenotype in a population to that of an expected frequency

P value

Indicates the probability that the difference observed between the two populations could occur if the null hypothesis were really true

Null hypothesis

No significant difference between the two things being compared

tRNA

The type of RNA that carries amino acids to ribosomes and helps position them into a growing polypeptide

Transcription

The process of copying a DNA message by mRNA

DNA Polymersase

The enzyme that builds new DNA in the process of DNA replication

Not true about cell division and DNA replication

In eukaryotes, mitosis results in daughter cells that are different in chromosome content from the mother cell

Cells death

A normal part of development in a multicellular organism

DNA replication

Precedes cell division

Bacteria divide by

binary fission

RNA

A transcript of the genetic instructions. It leaves the nucleus to help build protein.

Chromosomes in a diploid cell (n=16)

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Natural selection

Acts on individual phenotypes, not on individual genes

Genetic drift

When chance events influence the frequency of alleles in a population

Charles Lyell's book read by Darwin

Principles of geology

Vestigial structures

Pelvic bones in whales and other non-functional or reduced structures in evolution

Geographic isolation can lead to speciation what type of speciation?

Allopatric speciation

Parapatric speciation

A mode of speciation where two populations evolve into distinct species while still having some degree of geographic overlap and gene flow

New species arise due to geographic isolation, preventing gene flow between populations

Allopatric speciation

New species evolve from a single ancestral species while living in the same geographic area

Sympatric speciation

Postzygotic isolation

Reproductive barriers that occur after the formation of a zygote, preventing the development of viable or fertile offspring from different species or populations

Jean Lamarck

Evolution occurred by inheritance of acquired characteristics

Darwin's contemporary with similar conclusions

Alfred Wallace

p in p+q=1

The frequency of one the alleles in the population

Diversity

A description of the variety of things, or in biology, the variety of organisms

Biological diversity

Often an indicator of ecological health

Species diversity

Environmental degradation will tend to lower, healthy environments will have a relatively high level of diversity

Diversity index

A mathematical way to measure different types of organisms in a particular area or sample

Species richness estimator

Simply reflects the number of different species observed in a population

Shannon index

Takes into account both the number of different species and their relative abundances in a population

Shannon index (H’)

−Σpiln(pi), where pi = # species i / total organisms

Simpson index

Represents the probability of choosing the same species from a population twice consecutively.

Simpson index (λ)

Σi (ni(ni-1))/(n(n-1)), where ni = # of individuals of each particular species (i), and n = total # of organisms for all species

Simpson index decreases

As the diversity increases, the value of the

Simpson index

Measures the probability of picking the same type twice, but cannot be applied if there is no species to pick!

Area size measured

The diversity of organisms will increase with the

Increase with area size

May indicate that the sampling has not adequately measure the diversity

Ecology

The study of, interactions of orangisms with each other and their environment

Food chain

The sequence of organisms through which energy moves

Carrying capacity

The maximum number of individuals that an area can support

Population

A group of individuals of the same species that occupy a given area at the same time and share a common set of genes

Each level in the food chain

Approximately a tenfold loss in energy

Density independent factors

Environmental factors such as severe weather or deforestation which limit the growth of populations

Density-dependent factors

Include disease, competition, and predation

Regulative factors

Elements that influence and control various biological, social, and/ or economic processes

R-selected species

Characterized by high reproductive rates, short lifespans, and producing many offspring with minimal parental care

Biomass

The energy stored in animal tissues

Coevolution

Predator and prey organisms evolve together

Retrogressive evolution

The evolutionary process where organisms lose complex traits or structures, leading to a simplification of their form

Divergent evolution

Closely related species evolve to become increasingly different

Convergent evolution

Different, unrelated species evolve similar traits or characteristics independently

Unlimited resources

That population of organisms will probably experience exponential growth

Definative host

The host that harbors the sexual stage of the parasite

Phoresy

One organism attaches to another for the purpose of dispersal or transportation

Paratenic host

An organism that a parasite uses to move between hosts, but where the parasite does not undergo any development

Intermediate host

Providing a necessary environment for the parasite to undergo a developmental stage or reproduce asexually

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a group of organisms

Cladistic analysis

A way to generate hypothetical phylogenies based on derived characters

Ancestral characters

Have remained relatively unchanged during an evolutionary time period of the group of organisms being compared

Derived characters

Represent modifications from the ancestral state

Specimen

Mostly ancestral features relative to the others can be used as an outgroup

Calculating Numerical Distance

A mathematical distance D can be calculated. This is a measure of the similarity between each pair of specimens compared