A&P Exam 1 Review 2.0

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1

Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → no insulin; hyperglycemia, glycosuria, polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia.

Diabetes Insipidus

Hyposecretion of ADH; excessive dilute urine, dehydration; often due to head injury.

What is hypothyroidism, and what symptoms does it cause?

Hypothyroidism is caused by low T3/T4 levels and leads to fatigue, cold intolerance, and weight gain; in infants, severe deficiency can result in cretinism.

Graves’ Disease

Autoimmune hyperthyroidism; goiter, exophthalmos, weight loss, heat intolerance.

What hormone deficiency during childhood leads to pituitary dwarfism, and what is the resulting physical outcome?

GH hyposecretion in childhood; short stature with normal proportions.

Cushing’s Syndrome

Cortisol hypersecretion; moon face, buffalo hump, central obesity, muscle wasting.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH.

What type of hormones are in Adrenal Medulla?

Epinephrine, norepinephrine.

Which hormones are produced by each region of the adrenal cortex?

Aldosterone (ZG), cortisol (ZF), androgens (ZR).

Liver Hormones

IGF‑1, angiotensinogen, thrombopoietin.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Stores/secretes ADH and oxytocin (made in hypothalamus).

What is the function of CRH in the endocrine system?

is secreted by the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which then signals the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol.

Target Cell Definition

Cells with specific receptors for a hormone; hormone binding changes cell activity.

what is insulin?

Protein hormone from beta cells; lowers blood glucose by increasing cellular uptake.

True Master Gland

Hypothalamus controls pituitary; makes ADH and oxytocin; regulates all anterior pituitary hormones.

What are the maternal and fetal consequences of iodine deficiency during pregnancy?

The mother may develop hypothyroidism and goiter, while the baby can experience impaired brain development and may develop cretinism.

Glucagon

Protein hormone from alpha cells; raises blood glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

What is Oxytocin?

Made in hypothalamus, secreted by posterior pituitary; uterine contractions, milk let‑down, bonding; positive feedback.

Growth Hormone Summary

Secreted by anterior pituitary; targets liver (IGFs), bone, cartilage, muscle; growth and metabolism; hyper → gigantism/acromegaly, hypo → dwarfism.

Short‑Term Stress

Adrenal medulla → epinephrine & norepinephrine.

What hormonal pathway is activated during long‑term stress?

Long‑term stress triggers CRH release → ACTH secretion → adrenal cortex activation → cortisol production.

What is the Anterior Pituitary Hypersecretion

GH → gigantism/acromegaly; TSH → hyperthyroidism; ACTH → Cushing’s.

What happens with Vitamin B12 Deficiency?

Causes pernicious anemia; RBCs cannot divide properly.

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Symptoms

Hyperglycemia, polyuria (glucose pulls water), polydipsia, polyphagia.

Goiter Definition

Enlarged thyroid due to iodine deficiency or Graves’ disease.

Which hormones are water‑soluble, and what chemical category do they belong to?

amino acid based except thyroid hormone

Hormone Lipid Solubility

steroids & thyroid hormone

What are the key characteristics of steroid hormones, including their chemical origin, solubility, receptor location, and mechanism of action?

Made from cholesterol; lipid‑soluble; intracellular receptors; gene activation → new protein synthesis.

What causes Type 2 diabetes, who is most likely to develop it, and how is it typically treated?

Insulin resistance; common in overweight adults/children; hyperglycemia; treated with diet, exercise, meds.

Aldosterone Hyposecretion

Low Na+, dehydration, low BP.

What are the physiological effects of aldosterone hypersecretion?

High BP, edema, low K+ (potassium levels).

Leukocytes

True cells; immunity.

Platelets

Cell fragments; clotting.

Erythrocytes

RBCs; no nucleus; oxygen transport.

Which ions are most abundant in blood plasma?

Na+, Cl−.

Interstitial Fluid Ions

Na+, Cl−.

Intracellular Fluid Ions

K+, HPO₄²−.

Anterior Pituitary

Glandular; uses releasing hormones.

What type of tissue makes up the posterior pituitary, and which two hormones does it store and secrete?

Neural; stores/secretes ADH & oxytocin.

Plasma Composition

90% water; albumin, globulins, fibrinogen; nutrients, gases, electrolytes.

RBC Structure

Biconcave, no nucleus.

What is the structural composition of hemoglobin, and how many oxygen molecules can each hemoglobin molecule bind?

4 globin chains + 4 heme groups; each heme binds 1 O₂.

Hemocytoblasts

Stem cells in red bone marrow; form all blood cells.

What is EPO and what does it do?

Secreted by kidneys; stimulates RBC production.

What do neutrophils primarily target?

mainly target and destroy bacteria.

WBC targets- Eosinophils

Parasites, allergies.

WBC targets- Basophils

histamine release

WBC targets- lymphocytes

B & T cells; immunity

WBC targets- Monocytes

macrophages; phagocytosis

Platelet Plug Steps

Vessel injury → platelet adhesion → chemical release → plug formation → coagulation.

Monocytes — key features

Largest WBC; become macrophages; phagocytosis.

What are the Granulocytes types?

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.

What are the two agranulocyte types?

Lymphocytes, monocytes.

Image: Pituitary

Image: Hypothalamus

Image: Sella turcica

Image: hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

Image: thyroid gland in neck

True blood cells

only leukocytes are true cells

Neutrophil Action

Neutrophilia → diapedesis → chemotaxis → phagocytosis → destruction.

Thyroid Axis

TRH → TSH → T3/T4.

What is the adrenal (HPA) axis?

Hypothalamus releases CRH → anterior pituitary releases ACTH → adrenal cortex releases cortisol

Exophthalmos- What is it & what condition is it associated with?

Bulging eyes; seen in Graves’ disease.

Insulin Timing

Best: after meals. Worst: post‑absorptive state (6–8 hours after eating).

Alcohol Effect of ADH

Alcohol inhibits ADH → dehydration.

Acidophils (pituitary)

GH, PRL.

Which anterior pituitary hormones are produced by basophils?

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH.

Adrenal Cortex Zones

ZG → aldosterone; ZF → cortisol; ZR → androgens.

What is polycythemia, and how is it treated?

is a condition where too many RBCs are produced; treatment typically involves phlebotomy to reduce blood volume.

WBC Targeting

Each WBC targets specific pathogens.

What happens to the blood’s ability to carry oxygen when a patient has anemia?

Low RBCs → reduced oxygen‑carrying capacity.

What is Oxytocin Feedback

Positive feedback (labor, milk let‑down).

Thyroid Mineral

Iodine.

What is hematocrit?

% RBC volume; male 47±5%, female 42±5%; high = polycythemia, low = anemia.