Anthropology 11: Introduction to Anthropology

Anthropology Unit

WHAT IS *ANTHROPOLOGY?*

- Study of humanity: Physical, ecological, cultural
- Anthropologists are social scientists who study the origins, development, and customs of human beings
- QUESTIONS: What does it mean to be human? How are humans different to or similar?
- Anthropology is close to Catholism
- Tells us important things from the past for us to remember
- Way of beings, distinct rituals & faith!

*CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY*

- The study of human cultures around the world
- How are we similar in our environment? How are humans the same?
- OUR ENVIRONMENT!

*PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY*

- Study fossils and search for origins and physical changes in the human species
- Study the physical variations in humans around the world today
- Study other species to see how they are similar to and different from humans
- *EX:* Also...*From what time can we understand that physical tools were used for eating*
- *EX:* TEETH as well!!! Sharp-teeth \---\> CARNIVORE! Straight-teeth \---\> VEGETARIAN!

*ECOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY*

- Focus' on what fossil remains can tell us about the lifestyle of early humans
- Discover how early humans related to one another and to their natural environment
- *EX:* What type of contact did early humans have with one another? How did they use natural resources? How did different surroundings influence different group of early humans?
- *EX:* In early origins \---\> Things we had to make use of: Soil, forest, surroundings (some tools were used for art NOT JUST for survival)
- *EX:* Evolution of tools!

*FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY*

- Study human remains to help solve crimes in a homicide, suicide, and accidental deaths
- Also used to identify human remains after mass disasters and wars
- Correlates with criminology
- *EX:* How can we identify individuals using specific things (colour of hair, skin, tattoos)
- Society needs to know this for protection
- Tells us a lot about society
- Tactics of serial killers

*FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS* - What they identify...

- The *SKULL* tells us everything!
- Sex, age, general state, biological ancestry
- Forensic anthropologists study remains & build biological profiles

*CULTURAL* VS. *PHYSICAL* ANTHROPOLOGISTS

*CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS:* study the different way humans think and act in cultures around the world!
*PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS:* study humans as a biological species by search for the origins of and physical changes in human species by examining ancient skeletal remains

*COMMON GOAL OF ANTHROPOLOGY*

- To understand what makes all humans alike and what various ways humans have found to live life

Famous Anthropologists: *RAYMOND DART* (Australopithecus Africanus)

- A teacher living in South Africa
- In 1924, he reported seeing a baboon skull on the mantelpiece of a home he was visiting
- He recognized the skull as an extinct form of a baboon
- Two boxes were delivered to Dart after he asked the owner to send more fossils; he found what he thought was a fossilized brain cast of a human who lived more than one million years ago
- With this skull he discovered Australopithecus Africanus (Southern Ape from Africa)
- First person to provide evidence of the African origin of Humanity

Famous Anthropologists: *MARY + LOUIS LEAKEY*

* The Leakey Family (Mary) discovered an uncovered, broken skull that lay somewhere on a Stone-age floor
* This discovery provided significant evidence that the earliest human beings lived in Africa.
* Some of their finds show highly developed ancestors living almost 3 years ago.
* Louis and Mary Leakey also found further proof an African Origin in 1959 when they found an *australopithecine skull* in Olduvai Gorge, Kenya
* The Leakeys soon after found more fossils of other hominins (humans' ancestors) such as Homo habilis

Famous Anthropologists: *RICHARD LEAKEY*

* Richard Leakey (their son) discovered a complete *Homo Erectus* skeleton at Lake Turkana.
* Provided humanity's African origin and helped start the school of primatology (since it generated much interest and publicity for the field of human origins)

Famous Anthropologists: *MEAVE LEAKEY*

* She discovered the new species (a variation) of the Australopithecus, known as the *Australopithecus Anamensis*

Famous Anthropologists: *DONALD JOHANSON* (Australopithecus Afrarensis)

- Johanson was digging in *Ethiopia in 1947* and found an almost 40% of a skeleton eroding out of a hillside
- He named the skeleton Lucy after listening to the Beatle's song "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds" with his crew
- *Lucy was the first early skeleton of its type that was possible to reconstruct and part of a new species- Australopithecus Afarens (Human hominins that walked the earth 3.2 million years ago)*
Suggests that human species may have developed in Africa
- Since 1974, Johanson and his crew have found the bones of at least 13 adults and children
- All of Johanson's studies suggest that his finds might be 2.5 million years old
- *All of his findings hint that the human species may have developed in South Africa*

*ECOLOGICAL APPROACH*

- These physical anthropologists were mainly interested in finding out about the physical features of early humans
- Anthropologists have realized that *the differences in physical features were often exaggerated in the past*
- Today, physical anthropologists are *more interested in what skeletons and other remains can tell us about the lifestyle of early humans*

*ECOLOGY*

- *Refers to the way early humans related to each other and their surroundings*
- Anthropologists use an ecological approach sometimes trying to find answers relating to contact
*EX:* What type of contact did early humans have with each other? What sort of social organizations did they have? How did they use natural resources? How did different surroundings influence different groups of early humans? What do their burial sites tell us about their beliefs?

*PALEOANTHROPOLOGY* \---\> Bones & Stones

- Study of human ancestors based on evidence from the distant evolutionary part
- These humans like ancestors together with living humans are called hominins (a human or human ancestor)
- Most evidence is in the form of remains or impressions of biological matter, or fossils \---\> preserved remains of biological matter
- Paleoanthropologists study bone and stone remains of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago
- Paleoanthropologists can learn much about our hominin ancestors by looking at very small, sometimes microscopic, details from the distant past

*PRIMATOLOGY*

- The study of living nonhuman primates as well as primate fossils to better understand human evolution and early human behavior

*HUMAN VARIATION*

- The study of the physical differences and similarities of existing human populations

Ethiopia's Afar Triangle: *SELAM*

- In 2006, Ethiopia's Afar Triangle, another discovery of Australopithecus Afarenus (AA)!
- Fossil of a 3-year-old female named Selam \---\> Most complete fossil of AA
- Had skull, both shoulders, part of vertebrate column, parts of knees and legs, parts of right arm, and several ribs
- Selam *helps researchers understand how humans came to move on two feet*
- Lower body was adapted for *upright walking*, but her shoulder blades hint that *she could climb and swing through trees*
- Has the *earliest confirmation of a hyoid bone \---\> bone found in larynx, supports muscles in throat and tongue*
- IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH INTO THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN SPEECH

Famous Anthropologists: *CHARLES DARWIN*

- Charles Darwin (1809-1882), a naturalist scientist, and author, who established the concept of natural selection to explain how animals and humans evolved
- He made observations on the wildlife and fossils he collected (from Galapagos Island)
- Darwin proposed that species were forced to evolve or they would become extinct
- Darwin suggested that humans first evolved in Africa: many of his contemporaries disagreed and pointed to Asia as the place where humans first evolved

*BIPEDALISM*

- *The trait of habitually walking on two legs!!!*
- One of the MAJOR differences between humans and other primates is that humans walk habitually on two legs
- An adaptation called Bipedalism

*BIPEDALISM - TRAITS*

- When anthropologists find a fossil, they look for traits that mark *bipedalism* such as:
(1) S-shaped spine
(2) Wide, flat pelvis
(3) Slanting thigh bone
(4) Double-arched foot
(5) Big toe in line with the heel
- *When an anthropologist finds these traits, the fossil belongs to a hominin!*

*LAETOLI FOOTSTEPS*

- Mary Leakey's important finds!
- Persevered in a layer of volcanic ash *three sets of footprints of early hominins*
- Footprints were clearly bipedal, having a strong heel strike, defined arch, and big toe in line with the heel
- Footprints *indicate bipedalism began at least 3.6 million years ago*

*ANCIENT STONES*

- Stone tools *help paleoanthropologists accurately date a site and discover more about hominins who used them*
- Oldest stone tools are large cobbles or choppers
- Anthropologists use a number of methods to find out how these tools were used and what they were used for
- Experiments show that with the oldest stone tools, *the most effective part is the small flake leftover*

*FLAKES* & *CHOPPERS*

-*FLAKES:* Razor sharp and can be used to butcher animal or whittle wood into sharp sticks
- *CHOPPERS:* Used to cut branches or cut through animal joints
- Experimentation can tell anthropologists what a tool can be used for

*MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS*

- With tools, it can indicate what it was actually used for
- *EX:* Polish on a tool can indicate whether it was used to cut meat or plants
- Cut marks on animal bones can indicate whether a hominin tool use is by looking at ancient animal bones

*TYPES OF STONE TOOLS*

(1) Oldowan stone tool
(2) Acheulian stone tool
(3) Mousterian stone tool

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Where does the trail of human evolution begin?*

- The trail of human evolution begins somewhere in Africa
- Apes appeared first and morphed into a variety of human forms.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What happened about 70,000 years ago?*

- 70,000 we almost went extinct
- Apes were forced to adapt and change.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: What are the two astounding discoveries in human evolution?

(1) HOBBIT. Investigators found the skeletal remains of a whole new species. A new kind of human half our height- one of the biggest finds of the last 15 years. New bones are remarkably different, one that will force a rewrite of the human story.

(2) GOLIATH. The bone at the bottom of Africa. Not a bone of a dwarf, but of an ancient giant. The largest human species is- Goliath Our ancestors are larger than anyone imagined. He will solve the mystery of why humans are the ultimate survivor. Forces us to examine what we thought we knew.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Human evolution is not a relay race, or a straightforward line. What is it?*

- Human evolution represents messy scribble, a melay. Not one human species
- MESSY THEORY
- Most species existed at the same time
- Evidence hints that some of the types of humans fought and even ate each other
- The straightforward story was supported for most of the 20th century

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What three things determined who survived?*

(1) Strength
(2) Brains
(3) Chance

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Who was the earliest bi-pedal (walking on two feet) age?*

- The earliest bi-pedal age was Australopithecus Afarensis- Lucy!
- 3.5 million years ago. She was the oldest bi-pedal found
- Long-arms for climbing, and the small brain size of chimpanzees
- Her Pelvis morphs cut like ours to hold her hurts when upright
- Has a more human-like jaw
- She was smaller and had long fingers and arms
- Found in a desert-like environment, her species spread beyond Africa
- Lucy is our *POTENTIAL* direct ancestor

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Who was the other?*

- *FLAT-FACE*
- One piece tells us something grand about our evolutionary history.
- *A bone fragment*- another Lucy? They made the measurements and found they had something completely different.
- An entire new human species once again- Flat-Face. A possible rival? Another walking ape. At the same time it existed. Might have come from Flat-Face.
- *Makes one new point in the human story.*
- *Flat-Face demolished the idea of a linear theory of human evolution.*
- *A brain the same size as Lucy, teeth show fruit-eater, and struggles to survive in a world dominated by predators.*
- *Flat-face does not have the smarts or brains to protect himself. Like Lucy, they protected themselves with trees. They shared the same territory.*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Who is the first figure in human evolution to be more human than ape?*

- The first figure in human evolution to be more human than ape is Homo Erectus.
- The first creature is more man than ape- pivotal moment.
- Found in Africa.
- Had key survival traits.
- First early humans known to leave Africa. Erectus Outbound.
- He headed North and ran to Europe.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *When did he begin to master the environment?*

- *One and three quarter million years ago*
- He thrived in his environment- adaptability.
- He ate meat as it was his only choice- like a chimp.
- Erectus created tools. Took place no more than a million years ago, but could be much earlier.
- Erectus fossils were found beyond from a time when the earth's plates reversed.
- *He arrived in Europe, 700,000 years earlier than imagined.
CHANGED HUMAN STORY!*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *How did he do this?*

(1) Erectus used stones as weapons to defend himself. Drives away carnivores. Evidence of prehistoric battles. Special hardware is needed, he had to evolve to survive in a dangerous world.
(2) He had the ability to cover long distances and survived off meat with his capability to evolve. His brain was adventurous just like humans.
(3) Boats were also used to travel.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Erectus populations who stayed in Africa lived alongside two other humans. Who were they?*

(1) *HANDYMAN:* Stole leopard's prey
(2) *NUTCRACKER:* A chewing machine with huge molars- extra bone area in mouth and weird ridge on top of head.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *How did they get along?*

- They got along by noticing one another.
- They had thoughts about one another.
- They treated each other in a very human way.
- One of the human species experienced a bone disease (skeleton pull apart), she survived her illness
- Someone must have taken care of her.
- SHOWS CULTURE! Empathy and compassion.
- Erectus helping each other!

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What two things helped Erectus survive?*

(1) Luck
(2) Talent
- Smarter, more adaptable
- Compassion: Too much iron, helped another
- BUT did not guarantee survival. Often just a chance for the survival of which species. Luck and Talent.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What discovery helped him to survive?*

*FIRE*
- Erectus discovered fire to help him survive.
- He created the oldest controlled fire ever.
- Bones found in a pit showed that he forged it himself.
- He overcame a fear- you have to resist impulses to tend to a fire.
- He had the ability to control his emotions.
- Fire helped cook food and defend himself from enemies.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Where can he now sleep?*

- *Because of fire...*
- Homo Erectus slept on the ground as the flames kept the carnivores at bay

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *How does his diet improve?*

- He began cooking with fire. From raw to cooked food.
- His lifestyle changed- raw meat is hard to chew, and cooking is easier.
- Chimpanzees only get calories from chewing raw meat as they do with fruits.
- Erectus made the meat tender and must have collected fire to soften the meat.
- *It further changed the shape of the early human body- fast calories from food create a growth spurt.*
- *His intestines and rib cage got smaller.*
- *Soft food made his jaw less tense, a bigger brain, and more room.*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What other human species was eating protein?*

- *ROBUSTUS!*
- Evidence reveals he lived alongside Robustus
- He was a potential rival and solved the problem of enough protein

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *How did he probably get his protein?*

- *TERMITES*
- Robutus got his protein from scavenging meat, just like Erectus.
- However, he used bone tools to collect his protein.
- He must have scavenged for insects and termites.
- *He broke into concrete WITH A ROCK/WOOD and ate the termites.*
- They were full of fat and protein.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What was the relationship between Erectus and Robustus?*

- *Robustus a potential Erectus prey...*
- Robustus and Erectus knew they were competing against each other in terms of collecting animal meat.
- They were the hunted and also had to dodge predators.
- They did not directly fight one another.
- Robustus might have been the prey of Erectus.
- *He might have killed another human (broken finger found, belonging to Robustus!)*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What species evolved from Erectus in Africa?*

- *GOLIATH!*
- *Erectus gave rise to a remarkable range of humans.*
- Several hundred years ago, a human dragged a human into their den.
- Goliath was the spawn of Erectus.
- A six-foot-tall (or even taller!) human species- a real giant.
- Environmental factors made Goliath bigger.
- Tallest most massive species ever discovered.
- *Used twice the energy humans have. He was more human than ever.*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What does he invent?*

- The throwing spear
- The earliest weapon manufactured for throwing for prey
- The animals were larger than ever in Goliath time, SO, he had to create something to make it easier to kill them from afar

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What technology was found on the island of Flores?*

- A fly stone and tools found most recently in our time.
- Spear points made by a skilled hunter.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Why is this variation of Erectus, the "Hobbit", not a pygmy?*

- The Hobbit is not a pygmy because they had bizarre bones- shrunken half the size of the Erectus.
- This creature survived later than any other human known.
- They had to reconstruct the bones to guarantee they did not belong to the pygmy.
- They had different ears, bones, and skull.
- *The Hobbit's skull showed that it is very clear it was human development.*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What does this discovery suggest?*

- *There must be even more evidence of other species out there that we are unaware of*
- This discovery suggests that Erectus at one point shrunk to the size of the Hobbit.
- People do shrink in different environmental conditions- we shrink like any other mammal.
- Early humans like Erectus could undergo radical transformations
- Hobbits needed to work together to kill prey.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What is a possible explanation for Goliath's extinction?*

- Goliath would have turned out 100% more heat than our bodies do. Big engine, but small radiator
- He could not survive in hot, humid places. He was often at risk of boiling over
- He had to live constantly by bodies of water
- Goliath's extinction was caused by heat 245 years ago.

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *Which species evolved from Goliath?*

- The species that evolved from Goliath are *MODERN HUMANS*
- HOMO SAPIENS!
- Goliath is our father

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What is the definition of modern human culture?* - Exam Question!

- *The definition of modern human culture is making things that are not necessary for survival*
- Modern humans have skills that separate us from any other species in life.
- In a cave, they slept in the most comfortable area, tended to the fire, and made tools far better than they needed to be.
- Only modern humans have a sense of pride and beauty in the things they create unlike any other species. They had easy access to food and water.
- They had time to think, ponder, and refine ideas.
- Patterns in rock: Could be messages, early use of symbols, or art! No one else did this. People of the cave- made everything with an eye for beauty as much as function.
*TINY SNAIL SHELL BEADS!!!*

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What other descendant of Goliath do we meet in Europe?*

- The other descendant of Goliath we meet in Europe is Neandertals
- Species just like us

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What happened to him?*

- It is possible that humans had a hand in the Neanderthal extinction
- We could have fought them and caused their death

THE ULTIMATE SURVIVOR: *What was the last human species with whom we shared the planet, and what happened to them?*

- *We most likely shared the planet with hobbits (homo florensis) and neanderthals.*
- Modern humans and hobbits: one had a brain for incredible creations, another knows how to survive in Flores.
- Hobbits thrived in Indonesia. But, *a huge volcanic explosion might have wiped them out.*
- Shown on a bright line in a cave wall- volcanic ash! 12,000 years ago.
- Modern humans survived this since they were spread across the world. We also had unique skills to continue living.
- At some point in the past, we nearly went extinct. A volcanic eruption changed the climate- cooling of earth.
- Just 2,000 in Africa survived the eruption. A group the size of a village.
- We survived more than just of chance- but clever.
- *The "great squeeze" made our species more intelligent and resourceful. Our minds were becoming refined surprisingly early!!!!*

Terms - EVOLUTION

- Change over time

Term - EVOLUTION OF LIFE

- The process by which the structures of plants and animals (including man) change over time

Term - HUMAN EVOLUTION

- Process of change by which people originated from ape like ancestors 5 million years ago

Term - EVOLUTION PERSPECTIVE

- Humans and chimps have evolved from a common ancestor

Term - PALEOANTHROPOLOGY

- The scientific study of human evolution (a sub-field of anthropology) -search for the roots of human physical traits and behaviours

Term - HOMINID

- Early human like creatures -describes all reps of family of man

Term - BIPEDALISM

- The ability to walk on two legs

LINEAR THEORY

1.Australopithecus
2.Homo Habilis
3.Homo Erectus
4.Homo Sapiens
5.Neanderthal
6.Modern Human

Hominids - **MILLENIUM MAN**

- Size of chimpanzee
- Eats fruits, vegetables, some meat
- Bipedal, but hung out in trees

Hominids - **LUCY**

- Erect bipedal
- Long arms
- Grasp limbs, thumbs ape like and short
- Ape like face
- Arched foot

Hominids - **AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICANUS**

- Slightly larger brain
- Teeth and Jaws similar to humans

Hominids - **AUSTRALOPITHECUS ROBUSTUS**

* Larger brain
* Large jaw
* Heavy chewing 
* Evidence of tool use

Hominids - **HOMO ERECTUS**

* Larger build than modern humans 
* Useof fire
* Developed sophisticated tools
* Found **FIRE**

Hominids - **HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHALS**

* Large brain
* Believed to live in caves
* Able to maintain fire
* First to bury the dead 
* This species died out from the competition of food
* Did not contribute to gene pool or evolved to modern human sapiens

Hominids - **MODERN HUMANS (HOMO SAPIENS)**

* Precursor of modern humans with a larger more developed brain
* Sophisticated tools
* Use of beads to create engravings and cave art + bead (snail shells)

*LINEAR THEORY*

(1) *MILLENIAL MAN*

* "Orrorin Tugenensis"
* 6,000,000 Y.A

(2) *AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS*

* Lucy!
* Approx. 3.18 million Y.A
* First sign of bipedalism
* Grasp limbs, thumbs!
* Ape-like face
* Arched foot
* Evidence of tools (stones)
* Pelvic area

(3) *AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICANUS*

* 3-2 million Y.A
* Slightly larger brain
* Teeth and jaws similar to humans, differences to humans shown ---> *Infer diet must be similar to humans too!!!*

(4) *AUSTRALOPTITHECUS ROBUSTUS*

* 2-1.5 million Y.A
* Larger brain
* Larger jaw
* Heavy chewing & evidence of tools (from teeth)
* Evidence of tool use

(5) *HOMO HABLLIS*

* 2.5-1.5 million Y.A
* Larger brain
* Skull similar to humans
* Broca's area: Had a form of *SPEECH*

(6) *HOMO ERECTUS*

* 1.8 million - 300,000 Y.A
* *FIRE* was in use (he *FOUND* IT)
* More sophisticated tools
* Larger build than normal humans

(7) *HOMO SAPIENS (NEANDERTHALS)*

* 75,000-120,000 Y.A
* Lived in caves
* Art on wall
* First to bury someone dead *CULTURE*
* Faith began this time
* Did not contribute to gene pool or evolve into modern humans!
* Able to *MAINTAIN* fires
* Died from possible food shortage or *MODERN HUMANS* caused death

(8) *HOMO SAPIENS (ARCHAIC)*

* 500,000 - 200,00 Y.A
* Similar to sapiens, just small changes!

(9) *MODERN HUMANS (HOMO SAPIENS)*

* 120, 000 Y.A
* ART!
* Sophisticated tools (use of beads, SNAIL SHELLS!)
* Larger more developed brain

*MESSY THEORY*

*How human development ACTUALLY is...*
(1) MILLENIUM MAN
(2) LUCY
FLAT-FACE
(3) HOMO ERECTUS
HOMO HABILLIS ("Handyman", *USAGE OF TOOLS!)
NUTCRACKER (*JAW!, lots and lots of chewing*)
ROBUSTUS (Rumored to be eaten by homo erectus \---\>
found finger!)
(4) GOLIATH (died due to overheating!)
(5) HOMO SAPIENS (NEANDERTHALS)
(6) HOMO FLORENSIS (*TINY HOBBITS!!!* Died from volcanic eruption!)
(7) HOMO SAPIENS (MODERN HUMANS)

*Homo sapiens (modern + neanderthals) & florensis are estimated to have lived at the same time BUT, modern humans outlived them!!! They were smarter, lucky, and more developed*

Who is the *MILLENNIUM MAN?*

*"APE-MAN"*
(1) Remains found from 1.5 million years ago
(2) Discovered in Kenya
(3) Size of chimpanzee
(4) Bipedal
(5) Tree-climber BUT not able to swing like Lucy
(6) Similar teeth + jaw to humans & fruit-based diet
(7) Predates Lucy
(8) DEATH: *Probably killed or eaten by some sort of carnivore, like a cat! [TEETH MARKS ON FEMUR]*

An Evolutionary Perspective: According to Charles Darwin

*KEY IDEA*
- All living things change over time
*QUESTIONS:* How come we are changing? Why are we different? Why are there variations of humans/animals/plants?

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: *DARWIN'S BACKGROUND*

- He was a British Naturalist: studied biology, zoology and botany
- He is considered to be the "Father of Evolution"
- Wrote Origin of Species and The Descent of Man
- He was invited to go to the Galapagos Island, Peru during the 1830's for 5 years
\---\> Known for his research on finches & giraffes
\---\> Giraffes used to be the same size as deer, Charles said that there was a genetic mutation - giraffes with long necks survived due to their accessibility to food

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: *SIGNIFICANCES OF GALAPAGOS ISLAND*

(1) The islands are *isolated* from the mainland and from each other which meant that *no cross breeding of species could occur between the islands.*
(2) The islands *shared the same climate, vegetation and environment.*

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: *DARWIN'S VISIT OF G.I.*

- Darwin collected and described 1000's of animals and plants - He observed the Finch population and noticed adaptations of origins to a variety of habitats
\---\> Different variations to finches' face/physical due to their diet + environment!
\---\> *CHANGED* their diet
*EX:* Colour of skin due to sun exposure (melanin), surroundings, environment!
\---\> 300 types of finches
\---\> *SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST*: *Monarch butterflies change their colours to not be hunted*

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: *QUESTION THAT PROMPTED DARWIN'S RESEARCH*

- What causes the different variations in plants and animals?

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: *DARWIN'S HYPOTHESIS*

- The environment is the selecting agent because the environment changes over time and different variants will be selected at different times.
- *This hypothesis led to Darwin's theory of Natural Selection.*
*EX:* People in Florida might not be able to undergo cold weather, TAP WATER is different, food- could have a bad reaction

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection - STEPS: *STEP ONE*

(1) VARIATIONS
No two organisms (plant or animal) are exactly alike. The differences of in individual organisms are called *variations and is a law of nature*

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection - STEPS: *STEP TWO*

(2) \---\> OVERPRODUCTION...NATURAL CHECK
- Plants and animals produce more offspring then can be provided for.
- Natural checks compensate for the overproduction of all living things.
- Natural checks include earthquakes, floods and tornados. - Natural checks correct the imbalance between food supply and population growth.
*EX:* PANDEMICS... COVID, red dye in toothpaste causes cancer

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection - STEPS: *STEP THREE*

(3) *COMPETITION TIME, SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST!!!*
- The most effective natural check for overproduction is the competition of organisms for space and food - *the struggle for existence.*

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection - STEPS: *STEP FOUR*

(4) ADAPTING
- Constant competition allows for those organisms possessing variations that make them especially well adapted to the environment have an advantage.
- The struggle for existence results in the *survival of the fittest.*

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection - STEPS: *STEP FIVE*

(5) OFFSPRING
- Better adapted organisms that manage to survive pass on these "survivor" traits to their offspring.

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection - STEPS: *STEP SIX*

(6) INHERITANCE
- The inheritance of these survival traits furthers the process of natural selection and may in time give rise to a new species.

*Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection:* OVERVIEW - DARWIN'S FOUR CONDITIONS

\---\> Species are *specially modified to their ENVIRONMENTS*
(1) Individuals within a population differ
(2) Differences to parents TO offspring
(3) Some are more successful at producing and surviving
(4) Variant traits \= success, pass onto offspring

HUMAN VARIATION

- To understand the differences between people, Anthropologists study *human variation*, on the genetic differences between people & populations

HUMAN VARIATION: *Why Are Humans Different From One Another?*

- *EVOLUTION:* The process of species' change, survival, or extinction
- Humans evolve to survive
- "The Origin of the Species" (1859), Charles Darwin outlined how every living thing evolves through natural selection

HUMAN VARIATION: *Three Principles of Natural Selection*

(1) Variation
(2) Heritability: The proportion of variation in a population trait that can be attributed to inherited genetic factors.
(3) Environmental fitness

HUMAN VARIATION: *What is VARIATION?*

- Is essential to the survival of any species
- If there is a change in the available food supply and the species can only eat a certain kind, they will go *extinct*
- If some can adapt to the change, they will reproduce and pass on their traits to their offspring

HUMAN VARIATION: *The American Anthropology Association's Viewpoint On Race*

- The AAA believes the idea of race has historically meant more than just physical traits
- The concept of race is *socially constructed,* SOMETHING DEFINED BY OUR SOCIETY
- States: *Race does not exist as a scientific category, genetic variation exists between races*
- An individual's behaviour and personality are largely conditioned by their culture
- Idea of race has been used to justify social, economic, and political inequalities, and excuse hatred, cruelty, and violence
- Racial believes are seen as *myths and folk beliefs and have NO biological legitmacy*
*EX:* Nazis, KKK

HUMAN VARIATION: *Studying A Legitimate Way!*

- Anthropologists look at human variety and try to understand a specific trait like skin colour or blood type
- Race is a *cultural myth,* not a biological reality

HUMAN VARIATION: *Legitimate Explanations For Human Variation*

(1) *NATURAL SELECTION:*characteristics exist to help individuals survive and reproduce in a particular environment. (2) *ENVIRONMENT:* Within a human's environment, they have already adapted to their atmosphere. Those who live in areas with sun exposure produce more melanin and have darker skin- they eventually pass this on to their offspring.
(3) *GENETICS:* Genetics also plays a role in human variation; an example would be one might gather different traits from their parents yet a grand aspect of them such as their appearance links to their parent's great-grandpa.

JANE GOODALL: *Who is Jane Goodall?*

- Began her studies as a student under the Leakey's, with a strong interest in discovering human fossils
- *1960* - began to study the behaviour and personality of chimpanzees in Tanzania; through observation and participation (Goodall studied chimps in their environment and lived with them)

JANE GOODALL: *SIGNIFICANCE \#1*

- Goodall developed a new method of gathering information
- She studied chimps by living in their environment (never been done before)
- Prior to this, studying chimps was done in a lab.

JANE GOODALL: *SIGNIFICANCE \#1* - Common Characteristics Apes + Humans

*Goodall observed that chimps share a number of personality and social characteristics with humans such as:*
(1) eating, grooming and sleeping
(2) showing emotions - fear, suspicion of new comers, excitement when greeting / seeing each other
(3) Social problems - use of aggression
(4) Making of tools

JANE GOODALL: *SIGNIFICANCE \#1* - Additional Discovery

- Jane Goodall observed chimps making tools (blades of grass were used to retrieve termites)

JANE GOODALL: *SIGNIFICANCE \#2*

- A new definition of what it means to be human must be developed because it was generally accepted that only humans made tools