Deviance, Stratification, Race/Ethnicity, Gender/Sexuality Flashcards

Flashcards on Deviance and Crime, covering definitions, theories, and social construction.

Deviance

Violation of social norms that may or may not be illegal, sanctioned through informal social mechanisms like gossip, ridicule, or social exclusion.

Crime

Actions that violate codified laws established by formal authority, subject to formal sanctions through the criminal justice system.

Biological Determinism

Early positivistic approaches sought physical explanations for deviance, such as Cesare Lombroso's discredited theory of 'born criminals'.

Psychological Factors

Examines mental processes and personality traits as determinants of deviant behavior, focusing on individual psychological development and mental health conditions.

Positivistic Theories

Theories apply the scientific method to study deviance, seeking objective, measurable causes through quantitative research and statistical analysis.

Symbolic Interactionism

Focuses on meaning-making through social interactions.

Functionalism

Examines how deviance serves society's needs.

Conflict Theory

Analyzes power dynamics in defining deviance.

Social Construction of Deviance

Deviance isn't inherent in behaviors but emerges when behaviors are defined as violating norms through collective judgments influenced by cultural values and power dynamics.

Durkheim on Deviance

Argued that deviance serves essential functions in society rather than being simply harmful, viewing it as a normal and necessary part of all social systems.

Boundary Maintenance

By punishing deviance, societies clarify and reinforce normative boundaries, helping define what behaviors are acceptable and unacceptable within a community.

Social Solidarity

Responding to deviance creates opportunities for collective moral reaffirmation, strengthening social bonds through shared values.

Innovation

Deviance introduces alternative perspectives that may eventually lead to positive social change, challenging outdated norms and introducing potential improvements.

Merton's Strain Theory

Strain occurs when society emphasizes certain success goals (like wealth) but fails to provide equal access to legitimate means for achieving these goals.

Conformity

Accept goals and pursue through legitimate means.

Innovation

Accept goals but use illegitimate means (crime).

Ritualism

Abandon goals but follow rules rigidly.

Retreatism

Reject both goals and means (dropout).

Rebellion

Replace goals and means with alternatives.

Labeling Theory

Deviance emerges through social reaction rather than inherent qualities of actions; the central focus is not on the behavior itself but on how others respond to and label it.

Primary Deviance

Initial rule-breaking behavior that has minimal impact on one's self-concept.

Secondary Deviance

Occurs when labeled individuals internalize deviant identities and organize behavior around the deviant role, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Master Status

A deviant label becomes the dominant social identity that overshadows all other statuses, influencing how others perceive and interact with the labeled person.

Broken Windows Theory

Visible signs of disorder and minor violations create an environment that encourages more serious criminal activity.

Inner Containment

Self-control mechanisms developed through positive socialization that prevent individuals from engaging in deviant behavior despite temptations.

Outer Containment

External social controls that restrict deviant behavior, including effective supervision and cohesive community structure.

Attachment

Emotional connections to conforming others create sensitivity to their expectations and opinions, discouraging deviance through fear of disappointing them.

Commitment

Investment in conventional activities creates stakes in conformity, leading people to avoid deviance to protect their accumulated social capital.

Involvement

Time spent in conventional activities limits opportunities for deviance.

Belief

Internalized moral commitment to social rules strengthens conformity.

Power Dynamics

Definitions of deviance reflect power imbalances in society, influenced by powerful groups.

Marxist Analysis

Criminal law primarily serves capitalist interests by protecting private property, criminalizing working-class resistance, and diverting attention from harmful corporate activities.

Differential Enforcement

Enforcement of deviance sanctions is unequally applied across social groups, with marginalized populations experiencing greater surveillance and harsher penalties.

Social Control

Criminal justice systems function to manage 'surplus populations' created by economic inequality rather than addressing root causes.

Stigma

Attributes that are deeply discrediting and reduce individuals 'from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one.'

Discredited Stigma

Occurs when a stigmatizing attribute is immediately visible or already known to others.

Discreditable Stigma

Involves potentially stigmatizing attributes that aren't immediately apparent or known.

Upper Class

Controls major resources.

Middle Class

Professional/managerial positions.

Working Class

Manual labor occupations.

Lower Class

Limited access to resources.

Social Stratification

The hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social strata with unequal access to resources, power, and prestige.

Social Class

One's economic position in society based on income (earnings) and wealth (assets minus debts).

Means of Production (Marx)

Defined class based on relationship to productive property.

Binary Class Structure (Marx)

Primary division between bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers).

Class Consciousness (Marx)

Recognition of shared class interests and opposition to other classes.

Class Conflict (Marx)

Inherent tension between classes drives social change.

Class (Weber)

Economic position based on market situation and life chances.

Status (Weber)

Social honor and prestige independent of economic position.

Power (Weber)

Power and political influence.

Economic Capital (Bourdieu)

Material wealth, financial resources, and property that can be directly converted into money.

Cultural Capital (Bourdieu)

Knowledge, skills, education, and advantages that provide higher status.

Social Capital (Bourdieu)

Networks of relationships, group memberships, and connections that can be mobilized for advantage.

Symbolic Capital (Bourdieu)

Prestige, honor, and recognition that legitimizes possession of other capital forms.

Status Consistency

When an individual's rankings across different dimensions of stratification (income, education, occupational prestige) are roughly equivalent.

Status Inconsistency

One dimension of stratification is different from other positions.

Economic Inequality

The uneven distribution of income and wealth within a society.

Absolute Poverty

Inability to meet basic human needs necessary for survival (food, shelter, clothing).

Relative Poverty

Economic disadvantage compared to prevailing standards in a society.

Feminization of Poverty

Disproportionate concentration of poverty among women, especially single mothers.

Social Mobility

Movement between different positions within a stratification system.

Intergenerational Mobility

Change in social position between generations (parent to child).

Intragenerational Mobility

Change in social position within an individual's lifetime.

Structural Mobility

Movement due to changes in the overall distribution of positions.

Occupational Mobility

Movement between occupational categories or prestige levels.

Geographic Mobility

Physical relocation that may facilitate social position changes.

Ascription-Based Societies

Social position determined primarily by inherited characteristics (birth, lineage, caste).

Achievement-Based Societies

Social position primarily determined by individual merit and accomplishment.

Functional Theories of Stratification

Argue that some positions are objectively more important to society than others, requiring differential rewards.

Conflict Theory (Stratification)

Views stratification as a system that benefits dominant groups at the expense of others.

Interactionist Theory (Stratification)

Focuses on how stratification is created and maintained through everyday interactions.

Global North

Encompasses wealthy, industrialized nations primarily in North America, Europe, Australia, and parts of East Asia.

Global South

Consists largely of nations in Africa, Latin America, and developing parts of Asia.

High-Income Countries

Nations with GNI per capita exceeding $12,695.

Middle-Income Countries

Nations with GNI per capita between $1,046 and $12,695.

Low-Income Countries

Nations with GNI per capita below $1,046.

Food Insecurity

Inadequate access to sufficient nutrition.

Processed Food Proliferation

Increasing availability of low-quality foods.

Global Care Chains

Global care chains transferring domestic labor from developing to developed countries through migration of women.

Core Nations

Dominant capitalist powers that control global trade.

Semi-Peripheral Nations

Intermediary states with mixed economies.

Peripheral Nations

Less developed countries providing raw materials.

Sex Tourism

Travel specifically for commercial sexual services.

Sex Trafficking

Forced recruitment into commercial sex work.

Modernization Theory

Explains traditional societies transition into modern, industrial ones

Conflict and Critical Theories of Development

Global inequality is not the result of internal deficiencies but a consequence of power imbalances, historical exploitation, and global capitalism.

Ethnicity

Shared cultural characteristics such as language, religion, traditions, and ancestry

Stereotypes

Overgeneralized beliefs about characteristics of a group

Prejudice

Emotional attitudes or feelings toward a group

Racism

System of advantage based on race

Discrimination

Unequal treatment of individuals based on group membership

White Privilege

Unearned advantages that white people experience simply by virtue of being categorized as white

Intersectionality

Describes how different forms of discrimination combine, overlap, and intersect

Pluralism

Represents a model where different cultural groups maintain their distinct identities while participating equally in the broader society

Voluntary Assimilation

Occurs when minority groups adopt the cultural practices of the dominant group by choice

Forced Assimilation

Involves coercive policies designed to eliminate minority cultural practices, languages, and identities

Segregation

The formal or informal separation of groups by race or ethnicity

Population Transfer

The forced relocation of ethnic groups from their home territories

Ethnic Cleansing

The systematic forced removal of ethnic groups from a region to create ethnic homogeneity, often through violence and terror

Genocide

The intentional destruction, in whole or in part, of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group