abnormal psychology exam 1

culture

refers to systems of knowledge, concepts, rules, and practices that are learned and transmitted across generations. culture includes language, religion and spirituality, family structures, lifecycle stages, ceremonial rituals, and customs, as well as moral and legal systems.

how are mental disorders defined?

• subjective distress

• statistically deviancy

• social discomfort

• irrationality and unpredictability

• maladaptiveness

• violation of the standards of society

• dangerousness

culture plays a role in determining what is/is not deviant; behaviors once considered deviant may be considered normal as times/attitudes change

DSM-5-TR definition of a mental disorder

a syndrome that is present in an individual and that involves clinically significant disturbances in behavior, emotion regulation, or cognitive functioning

disturbances represent dysfunction in biological, psychological, or developmental processes need for mental functioning

associated with significant distress or disability in key areas of functioning

predictable or culturally approved responses to common stressors losses excluded (ex. grief)

mental health epidemiology

the study of the distribution of mental disorders in a population

prevalence

number of active cases in a population during any given period, expressed in percentages or different types of prevalence estimates

point prevalence

estimated proportion of actual, active cases of a disorder in a population at a given point in time

1-year prevalence

estimate of the number of people who experienced a particulr disorder at any point during the entire year

lifetime prevalence

estimate of the number of people who have had a particular disorder at any time in their lives

incidence

number of new cases in population over given period; typically, lower than prevalence figures.

benefits of research

learn about a disorder’s symptoms, prevalence, duration (acute, chronic), and accompanying problems

etiology

causes

self-report data

participants asked to provide information about themselves

examples include interviews and questionaires

observational approaches

collecting information without asking participants for it directly

direct observation: outward behavior is recorded by trained observers

biological variables can also be observed via technologically advanced methods — fMRI, TMS

correlational research design

studying the world as it is

does not involve any manipulation of variables

used any time we study the differences between individuals who do and do not have a particular disorder — select groups of interest and compare them on a variety of different measures.

experimental research

allows researchers to draw conclusions about causality and resolve questions of directionality

scientists try to control all factors except independent variable

actively manipulate independent variable

if dependent variable changes as independent variable changes, the IV may be causing changes in the DV

participants are assessed at baseline and then randomly assigned to different groups. after the experiment or treatment is completed, data collected from the two different groups are then compared.

developmental psychopathology

the study of the origins and course of individual patterns of behavioral maladaptation.

not a condition that some individuals simply have or are born to have; rather it is the outcome of a developmental process

equifinality

the principle that a shared final outcome can be reached from different starting points or through multiple different paths

multifinality

a principle stating that a similar beginning or single starting point can lead to diverse, different outcomes

correlate

a variable (x) that is associated with an outcome of interest (y)

risk factor

a factor or characteristic that is associated with an increased risk of developing condition Y

variable risk factors

risk factors that can be changed

fixed markers

risk factorrs that cannot be changed

variable marker

if changing X does not lead to a change in Y, X is a variable marker of Y

causal risk factor

if changing X does lead to a change in Y, X may be a causal risk factor for Y

three determinants of behavior and development

environment, genetics, prior development

risk

vulnerability factors ex. neuroticism

resillience

the ability to adapt and the ability to recover when difficult or stressful things happen

developmental cascades

early experiences can set up a chain of reactions that influence multiple stages of development over time; domino effects in development rather than isolated outcomes

ex. mild language early delays - experience bullying and fewer peer interactions → leads to low self esteem and then maybe later academic problems

etiology

causal pattern of abnormal behavior

necessary cause

characteristic (X) that must exist for a disorder (Y) to occur

ex. ptsd - trauma is defined in a very particular way

sufficient cause

condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder; if x occurs, they y will also occur

ex. down syndrome, huntingsons disease

contributory cause

increases the probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur

ex. more hopelessness, more likely to develop depression

distal risk factors

occur early in life but don’t show effects for many years

proximal risk factors

occurs shortly before the occurrence of symptoms — stressor

ex. college, break up, bad grade

reinforcing contributor cause

condition that reinforces or maintains maladaptive behavior that is already occurring

ex. social anxiety → discussion class -→ avoidance

diathesis-stress models

describe psychopathology that develops when someone with a preexisting vulnerability for the disorder experiences a stressor

diathesis

vulnerability; a predisposition toward developing a disorder that can derive from biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors

stress

response of individual to taxing demands

biopsychosocial viewpoint

acknowledges that biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment

biological perspective

mental disorders are viewed as disorders of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and/or endocrine system

four categories of biological factors

genetic vulnerabilities

brain dysfunction and neural plasticity

neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in brain and CNS

temperament

temperament

a person's or animal's natural, biologically based behavioral style and way of reacting to the world

refers to a child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation

early temperament is basis from which personality develops

five dimensions:

fearfulness, irritability/frustration, positive affect, activity level, attentional persistence/effortful control

ex. being inhibited, introverted, avoidant

genotype

is all of one’s genetic information

phenotype

is one’s observable characteristics

genetics and psychopathology

there is no one gene for any mental disorder

vulnerabilities to mental disorders are almost always polygenic

influence by multiple genes or multiple polymorphisms of genes

any single gene has only very small effects

four types of gene-environment interplay

variations in heritability according to environmental circumstances

gene-environment correlations

epigenetic mechanisms by which environmental influences alter the effects of gene

interactions between specific identified genes and specific measured environmental risk factors

gene environment correlations

occur when the genotype shapes the environmental experiences a child has

researchers have found three important ways in which an individual’s genotype may shape his or her environment:

active effect, evocative effect, passive effect

active effect

niche picking

results when the child plays more of an active role in shaping the environment

individual seeks out compatible environment

evocative effect

results when the genotype evokes a reaction from the environment

individual’s genotype influences environment

passive effect

results from genetic similarities to parents

environment provided influenced by parents’ genotypes

passive rGE

association or correlation between the genotype a child inherits from their parents and the environment in which they are raised

environment provided influenced by parents’ genotypes

brain dysfunction and neural plasticity

flexibility of the brain

the developmental systems approach acknowledges that genetics influences neural activity — which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment — and that these influences are bidirectional

imbalances of neurotransmitter systems

neurons, or nerve cells, must communicate through the transmission of electrical nerve impulses for the brain to function adequately

can be created by:

excessive production and release of neurotransmitter substance into the synapse

dysfunctions in the ways neurotransmitters are deactivated

problems with the receptors in the postsynaptic neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical substances that are released into the synapse

neurotransmitters

norepinephrine

dopamine

serotonin

glutamate

gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

hormonal imbalances

hormones are chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in our bodies

hormones through the bloodstream and directly affect cells in various parts of our brain and body

the pituitary gland is the master gland of the body, producing a variety of hormones that regulate or control the other endocrine glands

hormones

chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in our bodies

pituitary gland

master gland of the body, producing a variety of hormones that regulate or control the other endocrine glands

g x e (interaction)

the effect of genetic variation on an outcome differs depending on the environment (or, the effect of an environmental exposure differs depending on genetic variation),

rGE (correlation)

genetic variation is correlated with environmental exposure

neuroticism

a fundamental personality trait in the big five personality traits model that reflects a person's long-term tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, fear, sadness, and irritability

etiology

why/how did the disorder develop?

maintenance

why/how does the disorder persist once it has developed?

ex. avoidance can maintain the disorder

the psychological perspective

the psychodynamic perspective

the behavioral perspective

the cognitive-behavioral perspective

early behavioral/learning approaches

purely behavioral approaches focused on what could be directly observed and measured — behavior.

cannot account for the plethora reasons that an individual could develop a disorder; its not all able to be seen or observed

for ex. temperament, prior experiences

laid the groundwork for our current models

mowrer’s two factor theory

the origins of behavior can be tied to classical conditioning

dog bite paired with dog — classically condition fear of dogs

the fear is maintained through operant condition — experience fear when seeing dogs, avoiding dogs, reinforce the fear in the original conditioning

classical conditioning

an automatic learning process where a neutral signal is linked with a natural stimulus to create a learned, reflexive response

operant conditioning

a method of learning where voluntary behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments

criticisms of early behavioral approaches

individuals with traumatic experiences who do not develop phobias

fears and phobia can develop without any relevant history of “classical conditioning” — can develop fear by just witnessing

vicarious/social learning

evolutionary preparedness — we fear certain things that could threaten our survival

core principles of CBTs

psychological problems are based, in part, on faulty or unhelpful ways of thinking

psychological problems are based, in part, on learned patterns of unhelpful behavior

people suffering from psychological problems can learn better ways of coping with them, thereby relieving their symptoms and becoming more effective in their lives — learning to cope in the face of adversity

cognitive-behavioral perspective

thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behaviors

schema

is a underlying representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information; often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension

cognitive perspective

fundamental to this perspective is the way we interpret events ad experiences, which then determine our emotional responses to them

behavioral activation in depress

the context and how we feel, can influence what we do and what we dont do

ex. choose to isolate, withdraw, lead to a downward spiral — how to get you up and engaged and activated in life (leads to motivation)

types of exposure therapy

real life

imagined

virtual reality

interoceptive

the social perspective

social factors are environmental influences — often unpredictable and uncontrollable negative events — that can negatively affect a person psychologicall

social factors that may have important detrimental effects on a child’s socio-emotional development:

early deprivation or trauma, problems in parenting style, marital discord and divorce, low socioeconomic status and unemployment, maladaptive peer relationships, prejudice and discrimination

social determinants of health

education access and quality, health care access and quality, economic stability, social and community context, neighborhood and build environment

low socioeconomic status and unemployment

the lower the socioeconomic class, the higher the incidence of mental and physical disorders

studies have repeatedly found unemployment to be associated with enhanced vulnerability to psychopathology

contributory causes

cultural perspective

what is considered healthy behavior and psychopathology differs in different places around the world

cultures also differ in the kinds of behaviors seen as acceptable or ideal.

research supports the view that many psychological disturbances are universal

socioculutral factors often influence which disorders develop, the form they take, their prevalence, and their course

cultural considerations and variations: social anxiety

taijin kyofusho: characterized by social evaluative concerns, fulfill criteria for SAD that are associated with the fear that the individual makes other people uncomfortable - “my gaze upsets people so they look away from me.”

psychological assessment

procedure by which clinicians, using psychological tests, observations, and interviews, develop a summary of a client’s symptoms and problems.

why do we need psychological assessment?

understand individual

predict behavior

treatment planning

evaluation of outcomes

diagnosis

psychological assessment examples

need for therapy

goals for therapy

need for school or programmatic services

determine competence/sanity for legal system

inform custody decisions about children

whether a person qualifies for disability

adequate assessment

should focus on the person

should include a description of any relevant long-term personality characteristics

also important to assess social context in which the individual functions: environmental demands, supports, and/or special stressors

cognitive behavior therapies

thought records

behavioral activation

exposure

psychometrically sound assessment

assessment tools that are reliable, valid, accurate, and consistent

reliability

a term describing the degree to which an assessment measure produces the same result each time it is used to evaluate the same thing

test-retest reliability

whether a test result gives us a similar value today as it did a few days earlier

inter-rater reliability

would describe, for example, the degree to which different clinicians agree on a diagnosis

validity

the extent to which a measuring instrument actually measures what it is supposed to measure

ex. elite college, diploma — is that diploma valid?

standardization

application of certain standards to ensure consistency across different measurements

procedures to be equal

culturally sensitive assessment procedures

language barriers, values and customs

confidential

privileged communication

breaches by medical professional violate ethical, professional, employer, and often legal standards, and can be punished harshly (fired).

exceptions to confidentiality

harm to self (imminent suicidality)

harm to others including child and elder abuse

homicide

court order (rare)

methods

interviews

clinical observation of behaviors

psychological tests

physical examination

neuropsychological assessment

neurological assessment

assessment of

personality

stressors

level of functioning

resources

symptoms

clinical interview

structured — reliable but predetermined (missing out on validity)

semi-structured — specific but free to deviate (greater validity, may be less reliable, takes more skill/training)

unstructured — more subjective, tend to miss a lot

DSM 5 advantages

efficient communication

some positive client impacts

treatment validity for some diagnoses

standardized terminology

consistent diagnosis

insurance

DSM 5 challenges

categorical vs dimensional

polythetic model

comorbidity

culture and “normality”

inadequate treatment validity

genetic and environmental nonspecificity

other specified/unspecified

categorical working model

classifies psychological and medical conditions as discrete, all-or-nothing categories (present or absent)