Cognition

accommodation

A process in which schema are changed in response to new information.

acoustic encoding

The encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Alzheimer's disease

A neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.

anterograde amnesia

A phenomenon in which a person suffers a brain injury and loses the ability to form new memories since the injury.

assimilation

A process in which old or existing schema are used to interpret information.

autobiographical memory

A person's memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life.

automatic processing

The unconscious and effortless process of encoding information such as space, time, and frequency.

availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

capacity of short-term memory

The magical number 7 plus or minus 2 (5-9 items).

central executive

The component in Baddeley's model of working memory that coordinates processes including the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

cognition

The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

context-dependent memory

Memories are more easily retrieved when one is in the same physical location in which those memories were encoded.

convergent thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

deep encoding/processing

Mental activity that requires deliberation and control, involving a sense of effort.

distributed practice

A learning procedure in which practice periods are separated by lengthy rest periods.

divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions.

duration of short-term memory

20 seconds to 20 minutes.

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli that can be recalled within 3-4 seconds.

effortful processing

Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves intentional work.

elaborative rehearsal

A memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to existing information.

encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

encoding failure

Failure to process information into memory.

episodic memory

The ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place.

executive functions

Higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving.

explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

forgetting curve

A graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning.

framing

The way an issue is posed; it can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

functional fixedness

The tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common use.

gambler's fallacy

The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently.

heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.

iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

imagination inflation

Increased likelihood of judging an event as having actually occurred when imagined beforehand.

implicit memory

Memory for information acquired and expressed unconsciously or automatically.

infantile amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.

levels of processing model

Focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory.

long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

maintenance rehearsal

Repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory.

massed practice

Encoding information all at once, less effective than distributed practice.

memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

memory consolidation

The neural processes through which new information is stabilized for long-term storage.

constructive memory

The process of recalling and filling in missing pieces of information.

memory retention

Holding on to information.

mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way.

metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique associating items with familiar physical locations.

misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

mnemonic device

A memory aid, especially techniques using vivid imagery.

mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences consistent with one's current emotional state.

multi-store model

Three-stage memory model including sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

phonological loop

Component that holds and manipulates auditory information over short intervals.

primacy effect

The tendency for facts presented first to be better remembered.

priming

The effect of recent experience of a stimulus on later processing.

proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information.

phonemic encoding

Focuses on how words sound; a form of shallow processing.

procedural memory

A type of implicit memory involving motor skills and habits.

prospective memory

One's ability to remember to do something in the future.

prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

recall

A measure of memory where information must be retrieved without cues.

recency effect

A memory phenomenon where most recently presented items are better remembered.

recognition

A measure of memory where one identifies items previously learned.

rehearsal

The repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness or encode it.

representativeness heuristic

Judging likelihood of things based on their resemblance to prototypes.

repression

In psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts.

retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

retrieval cues

Stimuli that help retrieve memories; can be external or internal.

inadequate retrieval

The inability to recall long-term memories due to a breakdown.

retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new information on recall of old information.

retrograde amnesia

A phenomenon where one loses the ability to remember events immediately before an injury.

schemas

A collection of basic knowledge about a concept serving as a guide.

semantic encoding

Cognitive encoding of new information focusing on meaningful aspects.

semantic memory

A category of long-term memory involving general knowledge.

sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.

serial position effect

The tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

shallow encoding/processing

Cognitive processing focusing on superficial characteristics.

short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten.

source amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event experienced or read about.

spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention.

state-dependent memory

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is best when in the same state of consciousness.

storage

The process of maintaining information in memory over time.

structural encoding

Encoding that focuses only on the physical qualities of something.

sunk-cost fallacy

A framing effect where decisions are based on previous investments.

testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving rather than rereading information.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The temporary inability to remember something known, with the feeling it's just out of reach.

visuospatial sketchpad

Ability to temporarily hold visual and spatial information.

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory focusing on information retrieval from long-term memory.