biology topic 1

Are branched or unbranched polysaccharides more easily broken down and why?

Branched, terminal ends easier to be hydrolysed

What polymer in starch has a helix spiral shape and why

Amylopectin as this makes it more compact making it more suitable for storage

What polysaccharide, amylopectin, amylose or glycogen have alpha glucose molecules?

All

Which one of the 3 has 1,6 glycosidic bonds as well as 1,4

Amylopectin and glycogen

What is more branched amylopectin or glycogen and why is it beneficial in animals

Glycogen as it has more terminal ends for QUICK hydrolysis and fast energy release, animals are very metabolically active so CAN SUIT THE DEMANDS of the cell

What are the 2 functions of polysaccharides?

Storage- energy, structural-cell wall

How is glycogen present in the liver/muscles

Visible granules, high respiration rate

Are lipids soluble or insoluble

Soluble in everything but organic solvents (alcohol)

What are the monomers of a triglyceride?

Glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Functions of lipids

Fats and oils which can be used for energy storage, insulation and buoyancy, hormonal communication

Where are saturated and unsaturated fats from

Saturated- animal fat

Unsaturated- vegetable oil

Why are trans fatty acids bad

• Can’t form ESC’s, can’t be metabolised,

• Creates kink in hydrocarbon chain, can pack as compactly

• weak intermolecular forces, liquid at RTP- low mp

How are triglycerides formed

By esterfication in a condensation reaction- 3 H20 molecules formed

Draw the formation of a triglyceride

What is a risk factor

Factor that increases the CHANCE of developing a particular disease

What’s is the incidence of a disease?

• Increase presence of a risk factor increases incidence of a disease

• Number of cases of a disease that occur within a particular group within a given time

Do HDL’s contain unsaturated or saturated fat?

Unsaturated fat

What is the role of HDL

• Reduce blood cholesterol levels when they’re too high

• Carry cholesterol to liver to be broken down and excreted REDUCING blood cholesterol levels

What do you need to reduce the risk of CHD to do with lipids

A healthy ratio of LDL:HDL

3:1 max 5:1

What are things definitely needed when studying the risk factor of a disease

• sample size- large, more representative

• Individuals in the sample- can only draw conclusions about those included in the sample

• Control group- to ensure no other factors are impacting the results

• Statistical significance- large differences between groups to to ensure its not random chance

• Influence of other variables

How to tell if groups are significantly differnet

If standard deviations overlap- not significantly different

If standard deviations do not overlap- significantly different

What is a causation

When 1 variable directly produces an effect in another variable

What’s a correlation

When 2 variables change in relation to each other but one doesn’t cause the other

How is diet a lifestyle factor associated with CVD

• A diet high in saturated fats increase blood cholesterol levels, increasing chance of atheroma formation

• High salt increases blood pressure

How High blood pressure associated w CVD risk

Increase risk of artery wall damage, increase atheroma formation, increasing thrombosis

Causes of high blood pressure

Stress, alcohol, poor diet

How is smoking associated w cvd risk

Carbon monoxide reduces haemoglobin oxygen carrying activity, decreased volume of oxygen going to cells, decreasing rate of respiration to cells

How are genetics associated with cvd risk

Inherited alleles more prone to high bp or high cholesterol

How is age associated with increased risk

As age increases blood vessels become more fragile increasing extent of damage and atheroma formation more likely

How is biological sex associated with CVD

Men more likely yto suffer due to lower oestrogen hormone levels, which increases levels of HDL in blood

How has education to public decreased risk factors of CBD with diet

Food labels with traffic light warnings, people can make more informed decisions about what they’re eating

How can healthcare professionals identify obesity in patients

Waist to hip ratio,

BMI

So obese individuals can make lifestyle choices to reduce their weight

How have they tried to decrease smoking as a risk factors

Advertising, health warnings existing on all packets free prescriptions to stop individuals from smoking

How have they tried to reduce lack of execrise as a risk factor

Increased hours of physical education in schools

Initiatives to encourage exercise

What is the type of drug used to lower blood cholesterol for CVD patients and how does it do this

Statins

Inhibits enzyme in liver that produces ldl

Reducing ratio of LDL:HDL in blood

Reducing atheroma formation

Red cutting risk of arteries narrowing and atherosclerosis development

What are the side effects of statins

Tiredness, nausea, diarrhoea, muscle weakness

People may start to neglect a healthy diet

How does ACE antihypertensives reduce BP

Blocks ACE production, reducing arterial constriction and lowering BP

How do anticoagulants help with CVD

Reduce risk of blood clot formation

What are side effects of ACE’s

Dizziness, abnormal heart rhythm, impaired kidney function

How do calcium Channel blockers help CVD

Disrupt ca2+ ion movement through calcium channels in the cell membrane, reduce muscle contraction, increases diameter of arteries, reduces force of heart beat and lowers blood pressure

How do diuretics work as a antihypertensive

Increase volume of urine, increasing volume of Na and water in body, decreasing blood volume, decreasing blood pressure

What are symptoms of diuretics

Occasional dizziness, nausea and muscle cramps

Symptoms of calcium channel blockers

Headaches, dizziness, swollen ankles, constipation

Risks of anticoagulants

Uncontrolled bleeding, possible internal bleeding

Differences between calcium blockers and ACE inhibitors

Similarities- both lower blood pressure

Differences- ACE block ace oriction reducing artery restriction increasing diameter fo arteries whereas CCB- prevent calcium from entering heart muscles, increasing diameter of arteries

How does aspirin reduce blood clot formation

Make platelets less sticky, and they’re unable to form a platelet plug

What are the side effects of aspirin

Irritates the stomach lining causing stomach bleeding

What is both aspirin and warfarin

An anticoagulant

Differentiate between warfarin and aspirin

Warfarin blocks the formation of clotting factors in the liver, aspirin make platelets less sticky reducing their their ability to stick together

What is the surgical method to treat CVD

Balloon and stent

How does the process of a stent being inserted work

A catheter is inserted into an artery, usually in the groin

Using a catheter the stent is guided to the artery

The balloon is inflated and the artery expands around it

This pushes on the atheroma and widens the artery restoring blood flow

The catheter is removed leaving behind the stent to keep the artery open

Do LDLS contain saturated or unsaturated fat

Saturated fat

What is the role of LDL’s and how

• Increase blood cholesterol levels when its too low

• Bind to receptors on cell surface membranes, allowing it to be taken up by the cell from blood

What are issues of high levels of LDL

• can block ember and receptors increasing blood cholesterol

• Can lead to formation of plague/ atheroma or action

Why are lipids better storage molecules than carbohydrates

Lower proportion of oxygen

Comparison of unsaturated sand saturated fats

They both have hydrocarbon tails

They both have a carboxyl grouP

Saturn’s has more h atoms

Unsaturated has more c=c bonds

Unsaturated can have kinked chains

How can alcohol control Ute to CVD

Alcohol can increase heart rate/bp

Can strain artery walls, increased risk of atheroma formation - thrombosis

Features of a glycosidic bond

Formed from 2 OH groups

Strong covalent bind

Links to ether c1,6, 1,4

Acts as a bridge via 1 oxygen atom