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"Age of Crisis"
Historians term to describe the seventeenth century; stagnation and retrenchment due to climate changes, religious divisions, increased governmental pressures, and war; led to hunger and population loss
"Great Chain of Being"
monarch, clergy, nobles, merchants(bought their way into nobility), peasants and artisans(vast majority of the population)
independent farmers
leaders of the peasant village; employed landless poor; rented out livestock and tools; served as agents for the noble lord
small landowners and tennant farmers
below independent farmers; not self-sufficient; sold best produce on the market to earn cash for taxes, rent, and food
dependent laborers and servents
at the bottom of peasant village hierarchy; toiled as serfs for noble landowners
bread
primary element of the diet; often accompanied by a soup made of roots, herbs, beans, and maybe salt pork
"little ice age"
colder and wetter climate throughout Europe in the seventeenth century; shorter farming season with lower yields; created food shortages and famine, lower industrial output; high food prices, stagnating wages, high unemplyment
disease
such as smallpox and typhoid, caused population loss, facilitated by malnutrition and exhaustion
women
often led peasant food riots, invaded baker's shops and seizing bread to resell at "just price"
Thirty Years' War
Four phases: (1) Bohemian phase: civil war in Bohemia between Catholic League and Protestant Union, Catholics won at Battle of White Mountain (2) Danish phase: leadership of Protestant king Christian IV of Denmark, Catholics win in Silesia and Pomerania with help of army led by Albert of Wallenstein, Charles I of England briefly involved- unsuccessful, aligned against France and Spain (3) Swedish phase: Lutheran Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus arrives in Germany in support Protestants, French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu subsidized Swedes hoping to weaken Habsburgs, Gustavus Adolphus won 2 important battles but was killed in combat (4) French phase: Richelieu declared war on Spain sending military and financial assistance (Effects) many areas depopulated, trade in southern German cities destroyed, agricultural areas suffered, small farmers lost land allowing nobles to enlarge estates and consolidate their power
Protestant Union
formed by Lutheran princes in the Holy Roman Empire (1608)
Catholic League
Catholic retaliation to the Protestant Union (1609)
Edict of Restitution
issued at the peak of Habsburg power; all Catholic properties lost to Protestantism were restored and only Catholics and Lutherans allowed to practice their faith
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
ended the Thirty Years' War, mostly ended European conflicts over religion; recognized the independent authority of German princes, reconfirming the emperor's limited authority; Calvinism became permissible; north=Protestant, south=Catholic
absolutism
in France, Spain, central Europe, and Russia, absolute monarchs gained all power under their control
constitutionalism
in England and Dutch Republic, rulers obliged to respect laws passed by representative institutions; the limitation of government by law, implies a balance between authority and power of the government with the rights and liberties of the subjects; have a constitution, written or unwritten
commonalities
protecting and expanding their frontiers, raising new taxes, consolidating central control, and competing for new colonies
(1) greater taxes (2) growth in armed forces (3) larger and more efficient bureaucracies (4) increased ability to compel obedience from subjects
obstacles
bad transportation/communication, lack of information, local power structures- nobles, the church, provincial and national assemblies, town councils, and guilds held legislative power, language barriers
professionalization and growth in army size
noble officers personally led men in battle, fell into debt because they had to purchase their positions and the units they commanded, soon governments would assume the full cost of equipping troops
Palermo
city in Spanish-occupied Sicily, exploded in protest over food shortages, city government subsidized the price of bread attracting even more peasants from the countryside; when Madrid ordered an end to the subsidizes, municipal leaders lighten loaf instead of raising prices, peasants not fooled, despite initial success the revolt lacked unity and ultimately failed
major French insurrections
at Dijon, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Lyons, and Amiens, aimed at outside officials who collected taxes
Henry IV of France
founder of the Bourbon monarchy, grandfather of Louis XIV, "Henri le Grand", "a chicken in every pot", remarkable recovery, Edict of Nantes, lowered taxes, instead charged royal officials an annual fee to guarantee the right to pass their positions on to an heir, built new roads and canals, despite his efforts at peace he was murdered by a Catholic zealot in 1610 setting off a national crisis
Marie de' Medici
headed the government for Louis XIII after her husband's murder
Cardinal Richelieu
(Armand Jean du Plessis) became first minister of the French crown, worked to strengthen royal control, extended use of intendants, acted to suppress Protestantism, main goal was to destroy Catholic Habsburgs' grip on territories that surrounded France
intendants
commissioners for France's districts who were appointed directly by the monarch, they recruited men for the army, collected taxes, administered local law, checked nobility, regulated economic activities
siege of La Rochelle
an important port city and major commercial center with strong Protestant ties to Holland and England; after siege Catholic liturgy restored
Cardinal Jules Mazarin
successor to Richelieu, chief minister to Louis XIV, continued centralizing policies along with regent Queen Mother Anne of Austria, struggle to increase royal revenues to meet costs of war led to Fronde
Fronde
frondeur=street urchin who threw mud at rich carriages, came to mean anyone who opposed the policies of the government, violence encouraged by robe nobles, Queen and Louis XIV flee Paris
robe nobles
magistrates of the Parlement of Paris- most important court, outraged by crown's autocratic measures, encouraged violent protest by commoners
Louis XIV of France
longest reign in European history, was taught the divine right of kings, "Sun King", ruled through several councils of state, took personal role in their decisions, selected councilors from upper middle class and had no intention of sharing his power with them, never called a meeting of the Estates General, depriving nobles of united expression or action, also had no first minister; believed religious unity was the way to a unified state, pursued a policy of Protestant repression, revoked the Edict of Nantes, ordered the Catholic baptism of Huguenots, destruction of Huguenot churches, closing of schools, and exile of pastors who refused to renounce their faith
restraints of Louis XIV's power
had to uphold laws issued by his royal predecessors, needed collaboration of the nobles
Versailles
former hunting lodge, first fixed home of French court, center of political, social, and cultural life; nobles required to live there for most of the year; displayed French glory to the world, soon copied; served as government offices, living quarters, and place of work for domestic servants, also open to public; even high nobles had cramped living space with noise, smell, and crowds; elaborate set of etiquette rituals; system of patronage in which higher ranked nobles protected lower ranked ones in return for loyalty and services
women's role in patronage system
recommended individuals for honors, advocated policy decisions, brokered alliances, formed powerful social networks
art and performance at Versailles
Louis XIV commissioned many sculptures and paintings as well as performances of dance and music; French classicism- discipline, balance, and restraint; loved theater with plays of Molière and Racine
"précieuses"
mocking name for aristocratic ladies and their refined conversational style, literally "precious", represented an important cultural force of elite women
John-Baptiste-Colbert
controller general of Louis XIV, financial genius, applied mercantilist policies, supported old industries and created new ones (especially textiles), new production regulations, created guilds to boost quality standards, encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France, abolished many domestic tariffs and raised tariffs on foreign products, founded Company of East Indies to try and compete with Dutch, sent 4000 colonists to Quebec, sponsored Jesuit Jacques Marquette and merchant Louis Joliet to sail down Mississippi River- claimed Louisiana/ Arkansas
mercantilism
regulation of economic activities by and for the state, nation's wealth is based on supply of gold and silver, need to export more than import
marquis de Louvois
(Francois le Tellier) Louis XIV's secretary of state for war, created professional army, uniforms and weapons standardized, training and promotion systems devised,
wars of Louis XIV
wanted to expand France to "natural borders", took commercial centers in Spanish Netherlands and Flanders and entire province of Franche-Comté, seized Strasbourg, last wars people suffered high taxes and crop failure, no additional territory gained
Charles II of Spain
childless king, his death started off a struggle for control of Spain and its colonies
Philip of Anjou
Louis XIV's grandson, entitled to Charles II's Spanish empire in violation of a previous treaty in which Europe would divide Spanish possessions between French and Holy Roman Empire
War of Spanish Succession
Louis XIV broke treaty and accepted Philip of Anjou as king of Spain, English Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance against him and the war lasted 13 years
Peace of Utrecht
ended War of Spanish Succession allowed Philip of Anjou to remain king of Spain but Spain and France could never be united, France surrender Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay area to English, marked the end of French expansion
Decline of Absolutist Spain
quantity of precious metals decreased, royal expenditures constantly exceeded income, repeated devalued coinage and declared bankruptcy resulting in collapse of national credit, manufacturing and commerce shrank, tiny middle class, many entered economically unproductive professions, expelled Moriscos, aristocrats increased rent on their estates driving peasants into cities, decline in agricultural productivity, production stagnated, ignored new scientific methods because they came from Holland or England
Moriscos
former Muslims expelled from Spain, skilled workers and merchants
Philip III of Spain
deeply pious man, handed running of government over to the duke of Lerma who used it to increase his personal wealth
Philip IV of Spain
faced a revolt in Catalonia (economic center of Spain), struggled to put down uprisings in Portugal and in northern provinces of the Netherlands, left management of his kingdoms to Gaspar de Guzmàn (Count-Duke of Olivares)
Olivares
(Gaspar de Guzmàn) able administrator often compared to Richelieu , but entered Spain into Thirty Years' War against Dutch and France, bringing disaster
Treaty of the Pyrenees
ended France and Spain conflict, forced Spain to give up extensive territories to France
serfdom in the East
peasants lost ability to own land independently, Eastern lords restricted rights of peasants to deal with labor shortages caused by the Black Death, runaway peasants hunted down and returned to their lord, heavier labor obligations- could force peasants to work 6 days a week without pay, local lord was prosecutor, judge, and jailer- appointed judges to rule in his favor, no freedom of movement, needed permission to marry, could be relocated away from family, lords squeezed surpluses then sold them to foreign merchants, power of towns and urban classes undermined
Austrian Habsburgs
strongly supported by Spanish relatives, wanted to unify the Holy Roman Empire and preserve Catholicism within it; after Thirty Years' War focused inward and eastward, established direct rule over Bohemia, serfs conditions worsened and Protestantism stamped out; forged consensus with the church and the nobility, German language and Catholicism helped unite the state and fuse a collective identity
Vienna
became the political and cultural center of the Austrian Habsburg empire, had royal palace of Schönbrunn resmebling Versailles
Ferdinand II (Austrian Habsburg)
drastically reduced the power of the Bohemian Estates- largely Protestant assembly, confiscated land of Protestant nobles and gave it to Catholics and foreign aristocratic mercenaries who led his armies
Ferdinand III (Austrian Habsburg)
continued to build state power, centralized the government in German-speaking provinces, permanent standing army formed, pushed Ottomans from most of Hungary and Transylvania
Hungarian nobles
resisted full development of Habsburg absolutism, revolted- never won decisively but never crushed; revolt led by Prince Francis Rákóczy- defeated but Habsburgs agreed to restore many traditional privileges of aristocracy in return for Hungarian acceptance of Habsburg rule
Hohenzollern family
family which ruled of parts of eastern Germany as imperial electors of Brandenburg and the dukes of Prussia
elector
one of seven princes or archbishops entitled to elect the Holy Roman emperor, but they had little real power
Frederick William
called the "Great Elector", determined to unite his three provinces of Brandenburg, Prussia, and scattered territories along Rhine River- all had German speakers but each had its own estate, taxes could not be levied without the estates consent; argued the need for a permanent standing army, persuaded Junkers to accept taxation without consent to fund an army in return for a reconfirmation of their own privileges; subjected towns to new taxes; tripled state's revenue and expanded army dramatically
Junkers
nobility and landowning classes which dominated the estates of Brandenburg and Prussia
Frederick I
son of Frederick William, received title king of Prussia for aiding Holy Roman emperor in the War of Spanish succession
Frederick William I
"the Soldier's King", truly established Prussian absolutism and transformed Prussia into a military state, built bureaucracy to administer the country and foster economic development, 4th largest army in Europe despite small population achieved through forced lifelong conscription, all Prussian men undergo military training and serve as reservists, allowing him to preserve agricultural production and army size, allowed Junkers to command the peasant armies
Mongols
group of nomadic tribes from Mongolia, established an empire stretching from Korea to eastern Europe, conquered Slavic princes and forced them to pay in goods, money, and slaves
Ivan III
"great prince" of Moscow, known as Ivan the Great successfully expanded the principality of Moscow towards the Baltic Sea; defied Mongol control and declared autonomy of Moscow, new princes of Moscow modeled themselves after Mongol khans; married the daughter of the last Byzantine emperor
boyars
highest-ranking members of the Russian nobility, cooperated with Muscovite princes to consolidate their power
tsar
contraction of caesar first taken by Ivan IV, considered themselves rightful and holy rulers, "Third Rome"
Ivan IV
"Ivan the Terrible", defeated remnants of Mongol power, added vast territories, laid foundations for huge, multi-ethnic Russian empire; after sudden death of his wife he executed members of leading boyar families and created a new service nobility who depended on the state for land and titles; bound peasants to their land or town so he could tax them more heavily, checked the growth of the Russian middle class
Cossacks
free groups and warrior bands comprised of runaway peasants; rebelled against the nobles and officials demanding fairer treatment, crushed by nobles; one of largest rebellion led by Stenka Razin- he and followers killed landlords and government officials and proclaimed freedom from oppression but they were soon defeated
"Time of Troubles"
after Ivan IV's death, as his relatives struggled for power commoners suffered drought, crop failure, and plague; ended when nobles crushed Cossacks and brought Ivan's grandnephew to power
Michael Romanov
grandnephew of Ivan IV, reconsolidated central authority but did not improve conditions for commoners, passed law giving lords unrestricted rights over their serfs and establishing penalties for runaways
Romanov tsars achievements
gained land in Ukraine and all of Siberia (had many natural reasources, especially furs); growth of bureaucracy and army
Peter the Great
determined to build the army and continue territorial expansion, eager to gain support of Ottomans; 18 month tour of western European capitals; entered secret alliance with Denmark and Poland to wage a sudden war on Sweden with the goal of securing access to the Baltic Sea and opportunities for westward expansion; required all nobles to serve in the army or in civil administration for life, created new school and universities and required all young noblemen to study away from home for 5 years, established military bureaucracy with 14 ranks- all had to start at the bottom and work their way up allowing those of non-noble origin to rise up, sought talented foreigners; increased service requirements of commoners, established regular standing army and taxed peasants, also sent serfs to work in factories; required nobles to shave beards and wear western clothing, freely choose their own spouse
Charles XII of Sweeden
young and inexperienced ruler who surprised Peter, defeated Denmark quickly, and faced Russian in the long and brutal Great Northern War(1700-1721)
Poltava
new Russian war machine crushes Sweden in Ukraine at this city, one of the most significant battles in Russian history
St. Petersburg
Western-style capital built by Peter the Great at the location of an original Swedish outpost, required tremendous resources, many died in its construction, nobles ordered to build costly palaces and live there most of the year, merchants and artisans must live in new capital, huge tax on wealthy with labor provided by the peasantry
unigeniture
highly unpopular reform of Peter the Great; inheritance of land by one son only
Ottoman Empire
conquering warriors out of Central Asia, settled in Anatolia(Turkey), one of the most powerfl empires in the world, stretched from Persia across North Africa into Central Europe, in their eyes the siege of Constantinople liberated glorious city from long decline under Byzantines and the Balkans became a haven for refugees
sultan
ruler of the Ottoman Empire, all agricultural land was his hereditary property; married women of highest social standing while keeping concubines of low rank, had children only with concubines to prevent elite families from acquiring influence in government; only one male heir per concubine- each son got to govern a province with his mother
Ottoman government administration
top ranks were sultan's slave corps because enslaving of fellow Muslims was outlawed, young slaves taken from bordering Christian nations each year were raised in Turkey, trained to fight and administer, slaves could rise up to acquire power and wealth
janissary corps
the sultan's army; highly organized and efficient troops; so prestigious it became a volunteer army open to Christians and Muslims
millet
"nation" or administrative division, autonomous self-government under religious leaders, recognized Orthodox Christians, Jews, Armenian Christians, and Muslims as distinct; collected taxes for the state, regulated group behavior, and maintained law courts, schools, houses of worship, and hospitals
Istanbul
formerly Constantinople, capital of Ottoman empire
"old palace"
for sultan's female family who lived in isolation under care of eunuchs
Topkapi
new palace where officials worked and slaves trained
Sultan Suleimann
married his concubine, former slave of Polish origin- Hürrem, and had many children with her, imperial wives began to have more power, marriages arranged between sultan's daughters and high-ranking servants
James I of England
(James Stuart), Scottish cousin and successor of Queen Elizabeth I, had 35 years experience ruling Scotland, "they can cheer at my arse", believed in the divine right of kings, responded to Puritans by saying "no bishop, no king"
Charles I of England
son of James I, also believed in the divine right of kings, married a Catholic princess and supported policies of archbishop Laud, 1629-1640 ruled without Parliament, illegal measures such as requiring coastal districts to help pay for the cost of ships for defense but also levied "ship money" tax on inland regions, eventually had to call Parliament to finance a war to put down revolt in Scotland; reluctantly accepted limitations to his power, fearing Scottish invasion; no army to put down rebellion in Ireland or Scotland, so after failing to arrest Parliament leaders he fled to northern England and recruited an army of nobles, cavalry staff, rural gentry, and mercenaries
Puritans
wanted to "purify" the Church of England of lingering Catholic elements
William Laud
archbishop of Canterbury supported by Charles I, wanted to impose two new elements to church in Scotland (1) a new prayer book based on the Anglican Book of Common Prayer (2) bishoprics, Presbyterian Scots revolted
Long Parliament
called when Charles I needed to put down revolt in Scotland, sat from 1640-1660, enacted legislation that limited the power of the government and made government without Parliament impossible; passed Triennial act, impeached archbishop Laud, and threatened to abolish bishops; formed New Model Army
Triennial Act
king must summon Parliament at least once every three years
rebellion in Ireland
English governors and landlords had long exploited the people, 1641 the Catholic gentry led an uprising in response to feared invasion by anti-Catholic forces of British Long Parliament; Cromwell put down and afterwards Catholicism banned in Ireland- priests executed, and lands confiscated to give to English and Scottish settlers, left a legacy of Irish hatred for England
New Model Army
formed by Long Parliament in response to Charles I recruiting an army in northern England, militia of the city of London and country squires with business connections
English civil war
(1642-1649) king against Parliament, New Model Army won at Naseby and Langport but Charles I refused to concede defeat
Oliver Cromwell
member of the House of Commons, a devout Puritan, led army to defeat king, dismissed anti-Cromwell members of Parliament; set up a commonwealth called the Protectorate- theoretically power rested in Parliament, but really a Puritan military dictatorship; implemented quasi-martial law, forbade sports, theater, and censored the press; crushed Irish rebellion and massacred the garrison; adopted mercantilist policies- Navigation Acts; welcomed the immigration of Jews to use their skills in business; the Protectorate collapsed after Cromwell's death and his ineffectual son succeeded him
Rump Parliament
remaining, pro-Cromwell members of Parliament who put Charles I on trial for high treason where he was found guilty and beheaded, sending shock waves through Europe
Thomas Hobbes
English philosopher, author of Leviathan, believed humans would fight violently for power and wealth if left to themselves, only solution was a social contract in which all members of society place themselves under the absolute rule of the sovereign who would maintain peace and order. Society=human body, head=monarch, body=subjects; his ideas were not shared by most of England
Instrument of Government
constitution prepared by the army that invested executive power in a lord protectorate(Cromwell) and a council of state, provided for triennial parliament and gave Parliament sole power to raise taxes; gave all Christians except Roman Catholics right to practice their faith; but it was never formally endorsed
Restoration of 1660
brought Charles II to the throne of England, both houses of Parliament restored with the Anglican church; failed to resolve two questions (1) what to do with Puritans? (2) relationship between king and Parliament?
Test Act
(1673) denied those outside the Church of England the right to vote, hold public office, preach, teach, attend universities, or even assemble for meetings; restrictions could not be enforced
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