AP Psych Cumulative Review

Hindsight bias

After an event occurs people tend to think they knew it would happen all along

Confirmation bias

the tendency to pay more attention to information that supports pre-existing ideas

Overconfidence

individuals tend to overestimate the accuracy of their knowledge and beliefs

Quantitative research

uses numerical measures in research

Qualitative research

uses complex textual responses and looks for key themes for research

hypothesis

expresses a relationship between two variables

independent variable

the variable that is manipulated or controlled in an experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable

dependent variable

the variable that is measured in an experiment to see how it is affected by changes in the independent variable

falsifiable

a hypothesis can be tested and proven wrong through experimentation

operational definition

explain how variables in a research study will be measured so that the study can be replicated

validity

research measures what the researcher set out to measure

reliability

research can be replicated and results will be consistent

sample

group of participants

population

anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample

representative sample

sample represents the larger population

random sampling

every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

random selection

allows findings to be generalized

stratified sampling

process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria

confounding variable

any different between the experimental and control conditions except for the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable

random assignment

each participant has an equal chance of being placed into either group

experimenter bias

the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the change of confirming the hypothesis

double-blind study

a research design in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment or the control, reducing bias

single-blind study

only the participants do not know which group they have been assigned to

social desirability effect

tendency to give answers that reflect well upon oneself

experimental group

gets the independent variable, treatment or condition

control group

does not receive the independent variable

Hawthorne Effect

the alteration of behavior by study participants due to their awareness of being observed

placebo effect

a phenomenon where participants experience changes in their condition due to their belief in receiving treatment, rather than the treatment itself

positive correlation

a relationship between two variables where they increase or decrease together

negative correlation

a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases

Likert scale

survey where you pose a statement and ask people to express their level of agreement or disagree with the statement

directionality problem

inability to tell which variable came first (temporal precedence)

naturalistic observation

a research method where behavior is observed in its natural environment without interference or manipulation

case study

a research method that involves an in-depth analysis of a single individual or group, providing detailed insights and understanding of complex issues (findings cannot be generalized)

measures of central tendency

measures used to mark the center of a distribution (mean, median, mode)

mean

the average score calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution when the scores are arranged in order

mode

the value that appears most frequently in a data set (can be biomodal)

positively skewed

outlier is very high causing a tail on the higher end of the distribution

negatively skewed

outlier is very low causing a tail on the lower end

range

the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

variance

a measure of how far a set of numbers are spread out from their average value

standard deviation

a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values, indicating how much individual scores deviate from the mean

normal curve

bell-shaped distribution where 68% in one standard deviation, 95% in two, and 99% in three from the mean

z-score

a statistical measurement that describes a value's relation to the mean of a group of values, expressed in terms of standard deviations (range from -3 to 3)

correlation

measures the relationship between two variables (can be positive or negative)

correlation coefficient

range from -1 to 1 with 0 indicating the weakest possible correlation

statistically significant

an indication that the results observed in a study are unlikely to have occurred by chance, often assessed using p-values (p-value less than 0.05 means the results are statistically significant)

p-value

probability that the difference between groups in studies is due to chance (smaller means more likely statistically significant results)

effect size

practical significance of research results

Meta-analysis

a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify trends or overall effects more accurately

informed consent

participants should know they are involved in research and give their consent

informed assent

when minors are asked for consent to participate in research

human research standards

no coercion, informed consent/assent, confidentiality, risk and protection from harm, debriefing

genetic predisposition

the increased chance of developing a specific trait or condition due to our genetic code

monozygotic twins

develop from one fertilized egg called a zygote

nature vs nurture

the debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development and behavior

neuron

individual nerve cell

neural transmission

when a neuron transmits a message

resting potential

the state of a neuron when it is not firing, characterized by a negative electrical charge inside the cell relative to the outside

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

action potential

the electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron when the threshold is met, causing the neuron to fire

all or none principle

the principle that a neuron will either fire an action potential at full strength or not at all, depending on whether the threshold is reached

depolarization

the process of a neuron firing and becoming more positive relative to the outside (the negative charge becomes depolarized due to positive ions rushing into the cell)

excitatory neurotransmitters

excite the next cell into firing

inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibit the next cell from firing

dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, alertness and motor control (lack of it is associated with Parkinson’s disease; too much is associated with schizophrenia)

serotonin

a neurotransmitter relating to mood control (lack of it is associated with clinical depression)

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter that is involved with alertness and arousal (lack of it is associated with depression)

glutamate

an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory (triggers migraines and seizures)

GABA

an inhibitory neurotransmitter that can cause sleep problems

endorphins

a neurotransmitter involved with pain control and addictions

Substance P

neurotransmitter involved with pain perception (lack of it is related to lack of pain perception)

acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter involved with motor movement (lack of it is associated with Alzheimer's disease and Myasthenia gravis, a muscle weakness condition)

sensory (afferent) neurons

take information from the senses to the brain

interneurons

located in the brain and spinal cord and take the messages and send them to the brain or efferent neurons

motor (efferent) neurons

taken information from the brain to the rest of the body

central nervous system (CNS)

part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

part of the nervous system that contains all the nerves not in the CNS

reflex arcs

neural pathways that control reflex actions such as the knee jerk reaction and response to hot or cold stimuli

somatic nervous system

controls all the voluntary movements

autonomic nervous system

the involuntary functions of the body such as heartbeat and digestion

sympathetic nervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action, especially in stressful situations, increasing heart rate and blood flow but slows down other functions like digestion (fight or flight)

parasympathetic nervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervous system that helps the body to relax and conserve energy after a stressful situation, slowing heart rate and promoting digestion (return to homeostasis)

endocrine system

the collection of glands that produce hormones in the body, regulating processes such as metabolism, growth, and mood

adrenaline

hormone activated during the fight or flight response to speed up bodily processes

leptin

hormone that suppresses hungerby signaling the brain to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure

ghrelin

hormone that motivates eating/increases hunger

melatonin

hormone that triggers sleep and wakefulness responses in the brain

oxytocin

hormone that promotes good feelings like trust and bonding

adrenal glands

produce adrenaline and activate the fight or flight response

ovaries and testes

produce the sex hormones

lesioning

removal or destruction of a part of the brain

electroencephalogram (EEG)

a test that detects electrical activity in the brain by using small electrodes attached to the scalp; it is widely used in sleep research

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT)

sophisticated X ray used to create detailed images of the brain

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a medical imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to measure the density and location of brain material

positron emission tomography (PET)

lets researchers see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks, and shows warmer colors to represent higher activity; different scans are used for neurotransmitters, drugs, and oxygen flow

functional MRI (fMRI)

a type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, allowing researchers to observe brain function in real-time and tying it to cognitive tasks

hindbrain

lower part of the brain responsible for life support systems (medulla, pons, cerebellum)

medulla (oblongata)

part of the hindbrain that regulates vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure