AP Psych Unit 4

social psychology and personality

personality psych

Study of individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

social psych

How we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

person perception

Mental processes used to form judgments/impressions of others.

attribution theory

Explaining behavior via internal dispositions (traits) or external situations.

fundamental attribution error (FAE)

Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when judging others.

actor-observer bias

Attributing our own actions to situations, but others’ actions to their personality.

prejudice

Unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group.

stereotype

Generalized belief about a group (the cognitive component of prejudice).

discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group.

just-world phenomenon

Belief that the world is fair; people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

social identity

The "we" aspect of self-concept; comes from group memberships.

ingroup

"Us" (people we share identity with)

outgroup

"Them" (those perceived as different)

ingroup bias

Tendency to favor our own group.

scapegoat theory

Prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

other-race effect

Tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races.

attitudes

Feelings (often influenced by beliefs) that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Tendency for people who agree to a small request to later comply with a larger one.

role

Set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave (e.g., Zimbardo’s prison study).

leon festinger

Developed Cognitive Dissonance Theory.

cognitive dissonance theory

Tension felt when thoughts/actions clash; we reduce discomfort by changing attitudes to match behavior.

persuasion

Process of changing attitudes/behaviors.

peripheral route persuasion

Influenced by incidental cues (celebrity endorsements, attractiveness) rather than logic.

central route persuasion

Focuses on evidence and logical arguments; more durable change.

norms

Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior.

solomon asch

Conducted famous line-length studies on conformity.

conformity

Adjusting behavior/thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

Conforming because we accept others’ opinions about reality (they must know something we don’t).

obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

stanley milgram

Famous for "shock" experiments testing obedience to authority.

social facilitation

Improved performance on simple/well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

social loafing

Tendency to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal in a group.

deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (mob mentality).

group polarization

Enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

groupthink

Prioritizing group harmony over realistic appraisal of alternatives during decision-making.

culture

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group and transmitted across generations.

tight culture

Cultures with strong social norms and low tolerance for deviant behavior (e.g., Singapore)

loose culture

Cultures with weak social norms and high tolerance for deviant behavior (e.g., USA)

aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm.

frustration-aggression principle

Frustration (blocking of a goal) creates anger, leading to aggression.

social script

Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

mere-exposure effect

Repeated exposure to new stimuli increases liking of them.

passionate love

Intense positive absorption in another (usually early in a relationship).

companionate love

Deep affectionate attachment for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

equity

Receiving from a relationship in proportion to what you give to it.

self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

john darley & bibb latane

Researchers who identified the Bystander Effect.

bystander effect

Tendency for a bystander to be less likely to help if others are present.

social exchange theory

Social behavior is an exchange aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

social-responsibility norm

Expectation that people will help those needing their help.

conflict

Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

social trap

Mutually destructive behavior where parties pursue self-interest over group good.

mirror-image perceptions

Mutual views held by conflicting people (seeing self as good, other as evil).

self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences and require cooperation.

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction; strategy to decrease tension.

personality

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

psychodynamic theories

Focus on the unconscious and childhood experiences.

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory/therapy; attributes behavior to unconscious motives and conflicts.

sigmund freud

Founder of psychoanalysis.

unconscious

Reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts and memories; hidden from awareness.

free association

Psychoanalytic method of exploring the unconscious by saying whatever comes to mind.

id

Unconscious energy; operates on the pleasure principle (immediate gratification).

ego

The "executive"; operates on the reality principle to satisfy the id's desires realistically.

superego

The moral compass; represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment.

defense mechanisms

Ego's methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

repression

Basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts from consciousness.

alfred adler

Neo-Freudian; focused on the inferiority complex and social tensions.

karen horney

Neo-Freudian; focused on childhood anxiety and countered Freud’s "dih envy" with "womb envy."

carl jung

Neo-Freudian; proposed the Collective Unconscious (inherited species memories).

collective unconscious

Inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

terror-management theory

Explores psychological defenses against the fear of death.

thematic apperception test (TAT)

Projective test where people express inner feelings through stories about ambiguous scenes.

projective test

Personality test providing ambiguous stimuli to trigger projection of inner dynamics.

rorschach inkblot test

Most widely used projective test; seeks to identify inner feelings via interpretations of blots.

abraham maslow

Humanist; proposed the Hierarchy of Needs.

humanistic theories

Focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs (Physiological→Safety→Love→Esteem→Self-Actualization).

self-actualization

Motivation to fulfill one's potential (after basic needs are met).

self-transcendance

Meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self.

carl rogers

Humanist; developed Person-Centered Perspective.

unconditional positive regard

An attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

self-concept

All thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to "Who am I?"

trait

Characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act.

personality inventory

Questionnaire used to assess selected personality traits.

minnesota multiphasic personality (MMPI)

Most widely researched/used personality test; originally for emotional disorders.

empirically derived test

A test (like the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

robert mccrae & paul costa

Creators of the Big Five factors.

big five factors

Five broad domains of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN).

social-cognitive perspective

Behavior is influenced by the interaction between traits and social context.

albert bandura

Proposed Reciprocal Determinism.

behavioral approach

Focuses on the effects of learning on personality development.

social-cogitive approach

Interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

william james

Early psychologist who explored the "Self" and consciousness.

self

Organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions; the center of personality.

spotlight effect

Overestimating how much others notice our appearance or mistakes.

self-esteem

One's feelings of high or low self-worth.