AP Euro Chapter 12 Terms

Artistic Techniques: Chiaroscuro, Contrapposto, and Linear Persective

Chiaroscuro: Strong contrasts to create illusion of depth and volume, added realism and drama to Renaissance art, used by da Vinci.

Contrapposto: Sculptural pose where the weight rests on one leg, causing the body to twist in a natural way. Created more realistic dynamic figures, revived classical Greek culture.

Linear Perspective: Vanishing points and converging lines, illusion of 3D space, making more realistic scenes, used by many artists.

Girolamo Savonarola (Florence)

Dominican friar and preacher in Florence. Criticized moral corruption of the clergy, Medici Rule, and Secular art and culture. Advocated for strict religious reform and a theocratic government in Florence. Organized the ‘Bonfire of the Vanities”, excommunicated and executed for heresy. Symbol of religious zeal and moral reform, highlighted tensions between the renaissance culture and religious conservationalism.

Dante Alighieri

italian poet, writer, and philosopher, key figure in early Renaissance literature. “The Divine Comedy”, wrote in the vernacular italian, making literature accessible. Blended classical learning with christian theology, explored morality, politics, and human experience. Influenced Renaissance literature and language, helped establish Italian as a literary language. Inspired later humanists and writers.

Baldassare Castiglione

Italian diplomat, soldier, and writer of the Renaissance. ‘The Book of Courtier” (1528) Described the idea courtier: educated, cultured, graceful, morally upright, and skilled in art, and athlete. Emphasized manners, etiquette, and the cultivation of virtue as essential for social and political success. Influenced European ideas about aristocratic behavior and Renaissance education, reflected humanist ideals applied to daily life and politics.

Pico della Mirandola

Italian Renaissance philosopher and humanist “Oration of the Dignity of Man” (1486) Celebrated human potential and free will. Argued that humans could shape their own destiny and rise toward the divine through learning and virtue. Synthesized classical, Christian, Jewish, and Islamic thought. Known as the “manifesto of the Renaissance” exemplified Renaissance humanism’s focus on individual achievement and intellectual curiosity.

Francesco Petrarch

Italian scholar, poet, and “Father of Humanism”. Revived interest in classical Greek and Roman texts. Promoted study of humanities (literature history, philosophy) Wrote sonnets in the vernacular, influencing later writers. Saw classical learning as a guide to moral life and human excellence, emphasized individual achievement and growth. Helped launch the Renaissance by shifting focus from Medieval scholasticism to human centered learning and the value of antiquity.

Pope Alexander VI (Borgia Pope)

One of the most controversial popes of the Renaissance. Known for corruption, nepotism, and using the papacy to enrich the Borgia family. Involved in Italian Wars, notorious for scandal and immortality. Symbolized the need for church reform, critics like reformers and humanists cited him as proof of papal decline. Supported Renaissance culture and diplomacy, remembered as one of the most infamous popes.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian Renaissance artist, scientist, engineer, and inventor. Known as the “renaissance Man”, he painted the Mona Lisa, and The Last Summer, noted for his realism, perspective, and light/shadows. Studied anatomy, engineering, and mechanics, embodied Renaissance ideals of individual genius, curiosity, and human potential. He blended art and science, influencing the culture and intellectual thought.

Northern Humanism

Renaissance scholars in Northern Europe who adapted Italian humanist ideas, focusing on Christian reform and morality. Blended classical learning with the Bible, emphasizing education, social reform, returning to christian sources. Erasmus and Thomas More advocated studying language, to read scripture accurately, criticized church corruption, seeking reform. helped spark movements for religious reform and intellectual foundations for the Protestant Reformation.

Nicolo Machiavelli

Renaissance political philosopher from Florence. Accused of harming the Medici Family and lost all government power. “The Prince” (1513) is a handbook for rulers on how to gain and maintain power. Politics based on realism and power, not morality. Rulers must be a “lion and a fox”, better to be feared than to be loved. Wrote during political turmoil in Italy, influenced by invasions/weak governments. he was considered the father of modern political science, shifting thought towards secular, pragmatic statecraft.

Medici Family

Wealthy banking family and political dynasty in Florence. Gained influence through Medici Bank, one of Europes largest. Dominated Florentine politics, often ruling as a Signori. Major supporters of the Renaissance art and humanism. They funded artists like Michelangelo and da Vinci. Cosmo de Medici (established power), Lorenzo “The Magnificent”, Catherine de Medici (Queen of France), popes (Leo X and Clement VII). Symbolized the link between wealth, politics, and culture, fueling the Renaissance.

Signori

Despotic rulers or governments in Italian cities during the late middle ages and the Renaissance. Common in cities like Milan, Florence, or other northern centers. They began as military leaders or wealthy merchant families who seized control, replacing republican leaders. They got power through patronage, mercenary armies, and control over trade. This helped stabilize cities for economic growth and artistic flourishing, but limited political freedoms, central to the politics of Renaissance Italy.

Virtu

Idea from Renaissance humanism, the ability of an individual to shape the world around them through skill, strength, and willpower. Not just in the moral sense, but excellence, boldness, and effectiveness in achieving goals. Renaissance leaders admired for their virtues in politics, arts, and intellectual life. Reflected Renaissance emphasis on human potential, individual achievement, and engagement in civic life.

Humanism

The main intellectual component of the Renaissance. Focused on the study of classic latin texts to understand human nature and improve society. Emphasized history, literature, and philosophy. Along side religion, it stressed human potential, individual achievement, and civic virtue. Revival of Latin and Greek, liberal arts education, critical thinking. Main people are Petrarch (the father of humanism) and Erasmus (Christian /Northern Humanism). Challenged medieval scholasticism, built foundations for reformation and scientific revolution.

Popolo

Disenfranchised, heavily taxed, commons people of Italy during the 13th century. Resented their exclusion from political power, using armed forces to take over city governments, but could not establish order within the cities, reasserting power back to the merchant oligarchies.

Mannerism

Artistic style that emerged after the higher Renaissance: Distorted proportions, exaggerated poses, crowded compositions, and unnatural colors to create drama and emotion. Reflected political and religious turmoil of the 16th century. Marked a shift away from Renaissance ideals and towards greater emotional intensity, paving the war for the Baroque style.

Jan Van Eyck

Early painter from Netherlands and master of Northern Renaissance art. Perfected oil painting and created luminous colors and detail. Focused on realism, portraiture and religious scenes. Advanced Northern Renaissance techniques, emphasized naturalism, symbolism, and attention to detail, influencing generations of European artists.

Christine de Pizan

Italian born writer and intellectual who lived in France, one of Europes first professional female authors. Advocated for women’s education and equality. Wrote “The Book of the City of Ladies”, defending women against misogynistic stereotypes. Early feminist thinker, challenges traditional gender roles and influenced later discussions on women’s rights in Europe.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Monarchs of Spain who unified their kingdoms through marriage. Completed the Reconquista by conquering Granada (1492), opening the Age of Exploration, they sponsored Columbus’s voyage to the new world. Strengthened royal authority, central government, and controlled the nobility. Laid the foundation for a unified, powerful, Spain. Expanded spains political, religious, and global influence during the Renaissance.

Conversos

Jews in Spain who converted to Christianity often under pressure during the Reconquista and Spanish Inquisition. Many conversions were nominal, as Jewish heritage and practices often continued secretly. Raised suspicion and social tension caused for the often accusation of heretical practices. They were targeted by the Spanish Inquisition, highlighting the eras religious intolerance and push for religious unity.

Spanish Inquisition

Church court established by Ferdinand and Isabella to enforce Catholic orthodoxy in Spain. They targeted Jews, conversos, Muslims, and heretics to ensure religious unity after Reconquista. Trials, torture, and public execution was used to root out heresy, as well as confiscations of property. This strengthened the monarchy’s control over religion and society, exemplified religious intolerance and the use of fear to consolidate power.

Henry VII of England

Founder of the Tudor dynasty after defeating Richard III at the battle of Bosworth. Strengthened the monarchy’s control through centralized government. He used royal courts and control over the nobility. He avoided costly foreign wars, built a strong financial base for the country through taxes and trade. He married Elizabeth of York to unify the houses of Lancaster and York. He established a stable monarchy and set the stage for Englands political and economic consolidation in the 16th century.

Habsburg-Valois Wars / Charles VIII

Series of conflicts between French Valois and Habsburg rulers (Spain and Holy Roman) over the control of Italian territories. Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in 1494, claiming Naples. Introduced new warfare tactics such as heavy artillery and mercenary armies. Highlighted Italy’s political vulnerability drew Northern European powers into Italian affairs. This marked the end of Italian city-state independence in international politics.

Condottiere

Professional military leaders and mercenary captains in Renaissance Italy. Hired by city-stages to lead armies into wars or defend territories. Often ambitious and loyal primarily to the money and personal power, not the state. Played a central role in Italian warfare, as their presence allowed city-states to wage war without large permanent armies, but also contributed to political instability.

City-States: Republican and Oligarchy

Republican: Florence and Venice, with governments that appeared representative, but powers usually concentrated in elite families.

Oligarchy: Ruled by small group of wealthy merchants, bankers, or nobles. Most “republics” were in practice oligarchies (Medici Family in Florence)

Encouraged competition, commerce, and patronage of the arts, fueling the Renaissance, but limited true political participation