Problem of Evil

What 7 characteristics describe the God of classical theism?

Omnipotent, Omniscient, Omnibenevolent, Omnipresent, Just, Eternal, Monotheistic

What was Stephen Fry's famous quote on the problem of evil?

"Bone cancer in children? How dare you create a world with such misery. It is utterly evil. Why should I respect a capricious, mean minded, stupid God who created a world of injustice and forces us to bow down to him? He is monstrous. The moment you banish him, life becomes purer and more worth living."

What is the Epicurean paradox?

Is God willing to prevent evil but unable to? He is not omnipotent.

Is God able to prevent evil but not willing? He is evil.

Is God able and willing to prevent evil but does not know where evil is? He is not omniscient.

Is God able and willing to prevent evil? Then why is there evil?

What is Mackie's inconsistent triad?

God is omnipotent.

God is perfect and all-loving.

Evil exists.

These cannot be believed together without contradiction.

What is an argument for God's responsibility over evil?

The God of classical theism made the universe from nothing. He is omnipotent so can do all that is logically possible, therefore could create a world free from suffering.

What is an argument for God's knowledge over evil?

God is omniscient so he knows all - he must know how to stop evil and suffering.

What is an argument for God's love versus evil?

God is all loving so would want to end suffering - no omnibenevolent creator would choose suffering for no reason.

What is Mackie's quote on God vs evil?

"A wholly good being eliminates evil as far as possible". God is omnipotent so it is possible for him to eliminate evil.

What did Hume say about Omnipotence, Omnibenevolence and Evil?

Only two can exist - God must either be impotent or evil. Therefore, there is no classical theist God as evil is too vivid and widely felt to be dismissable.

What is the logical problem of evil?

We can deduce that God's qualities would rule out evil, and evil rules out the God of classical theism.

What type of argument is the logical problem of evil?

A priori, deductive (difficult to undermine as must be followed by a conclusion).

What is an example of a deductive argument against the God of classical theism?

P1 - Evil exists.

P2 - An omnibenevolent, omnipotent God would stop evil.

Conc - There is no God of classical theism.

What is the evidential problem of evil?

Evidence is against the possibility of a perfect God and evil coexisting. The primary and secondary evidence of suffering makes belief in the God of classical theism unjustified.

What were Mill's views on the natural world?

The natural world is full of evil and proves a sadistic God. There is no evidence for a loving creator as it can be empirically disproven.

What is Mill's quote on evil in nature?

"Nature impales men [and] casts them to be devoured by wild beasts".

From Mill's empirical views on evil, what can we say about God's nature?

He cannot be omnibenevolent or a guide for morality, nor should be worshipped for goodness.

What did Mill say about evil in man versus the natural world?

"In sober truth, nearly all the things which men are hanged or imprisoned for doing to one another are nature's everyday performances"

What were Mill's context on his views around destruction?

He saw the deadly Irish potato famine - why is it fair that nature would cause a crop failure to inflict mass suffering? If God acts as a human criminal, he should be considered as one.

What did William Rowe think about Mill's views on evil?

He developed them into an argument for atheism, also inspired by David Hume (Wise man proportions belief to evidence).

What were William Rowe's views on evil?

There is evident intense human and animal suffering daily. Not all of this is required for a greater good.

What example of animal suffering did Rowe use?

A fawn trapped and burned in a fire with a slow death - there is no evident good from this or reason for the death to be slow and agonising.

Some suffering may allow good, however this is pointless.

What is the etymology of theodicy?

'Justice of God', in this case a Justification for God (classical theist) and evil to exist concurrently.

What did Manichaeists believe?

The universe is in a cosmic battle between good and evil, same with body and soul.

What is Natural Evil?

Suffering not caused, preventable or influenced at root cause by humans like natural disasters or a bad harvest.

What is Moral Evil?

Suffering caused by human choices e.g. violence, greed or bullying. Also includes failure to do good when opportunity arises e.g. choosing not to fix something fixable.

What was Augustine's view on creation?

God did not make anything imperfect. Based on Genesis 1:31 - "God saw what he had made, and it was very good."

What are two major assumptions Augustine makes over evil?

1. Evil is not from God as creation is perfect.

2. Evil has come from something else, so God is justified in not removing it.

What is Augustine's view on evil as a concept?

Evil is not a substance, it is the absence of good. Just like how turning off the light is not turning on darkness, evil is a straying from good.

What is Privatio Boni?

Evil is insubstantial, it is a privation/lack of goodness. May be inspired by Augustine's previous Neoplatonism as similar to straying from form of good.

What does Augustine say about variety in goodness?

Variety is a part of goodness - evil is not a force but a fall from this goodness. Goodness has different levels; just because a worm can't sing doesn't mean it is bad/evil, just highlights the diversity of creation. Limitations are necessary results of this difference.

What does Augustine say about angels?

Some angels fall, all made perfect but some have less grace and thus assistance in holiness than others.

What does Augustine say about Satan?

He is not evil, just tempts from God and looks after the damned. Fallen angels are not evil, they just turn people away from God and goodness.

How does the story of the serpent link to Augustine's view on Satan and evil?

The serpent is an angel (probably Satan) in disguise - it does not tell Eve to do any evil, but does tempt Eve to turn from God by eating the fruit. This is completely done by Eve's free will, enacting Privatio Boni (absence of good, aka evil).

Who does Adam & Eve's disobedience mirror?

Falling angels, but so terrible that it disrupts the world cosmically for generations.

Why is Adam & Eve's disobedience so terrible and what does it cause?

It disrupts the world cosmically as by their own free will, cursing the ground and turning the natural world away from good, causing things like earthquakes, plagues etc - this is what we'd call 'Natural Evil'.

What is a counter to the idea that evil lets us learn?

Evil often destroys and harms before people can learn, and sometimes in pointlessly agonising ways - why?

What is a question around evil letting us understand and appreciate goodness?

What use does minor evil like a papercut or a cold have? You can't really appreciate good from that.

What do many say evil rules out?

A good, powerful or knowledgeable god, any god worth worshipping or the concept of a god altogether.

What is the Irenaen theodicy?

Free will is an important part of being made imago dei. Life is a test for us, and we have the option to choose between a good relationship with God and evil. Evil must exist to allow us to appreciate goodness, and despite being imago dei we must use our free will to develop into the 'likeness' of God.

How does Hick respond to the Irenaen theodicy?

Evil and suffering is part of God's plan to help us grow into a loving and free relationship. God keeps himself at an epistemic distance to ensure that we make our own free choices towards good.

What does Hick argue around moral character?

The world exists to shape our moral character - we have a 'vale of soul-making'. By making good moral decisions, we can freely turn to God. This journey continues in the afterlife.

Why do some argue the logical argument is best?

It has the capacity to prove that God cannot exist, be omnibenevolent or omnipotent. It is based on logic.

Why do some argue the evidential argument is best?

All humans see suffering, the volume of said suffering provides first-hand evidence for God not existing.

Why do some argue the logical argument is weak?

The logical argument is simply a matter of abstract semantics and logic - It is not based on real experience.

Why do some argue the evidential argument is weak?

The evidential argument only provides inductive evidence that would suggest God 'likely doesn't exist' - it doesn't provide certainty and may be logically compatible with God existing.

What does Augustine believe about possibility vs actuality in evil?

God did not positively create evil, rather created free will which has the possibility of evil. It is only us who have turned that into actuality.

What is Burke's quote on evil?

"The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing."

How does Augustine feel we can return to God?

Through accepting the holy spirit via baptism - accepting God's gift of grace through Christ's death and resurrection.

How does Pelagius feel we can return to God?

Through good deeds and working towards God, learning from mistakes.

Why is Augustine's theodicy strong?

Accounts for natural evil and proves free will justified risk of evil. Takes evil's responsibility from God, dedicates it as non-substantial and details judgement day & forgiveness. Emphasises predestination.

Why is Augustine's theodicy weak due to logical errors?

If a perfect world has somehow gone wrong, this suggests evil is self-created which is logically implausible.

Why is Augustine's theodicy weak due to logical problems of the free will defense?

Appeal to the free will defense is logically problematic - Calvin argued that if we are predestined we cannot truly be free as we are morally responsible for the fall - free will cannot justify evil.

Why is Augustine's theodicy weak due to scientific errors?

It is reliant on literalism

Why is Augustine's theodicy weak due to moral errors?

God is arbitrary with forgiveness as well all deserve punishment. This makes the view of omnibenevolence unconvincing.

If God is all-loving, why would he create the world if he knows of the fall and knows we will spend eternity in hell?

Why is Augustine's theodicy weak due to Privatio Boni?

Evil in some cases can be arguably much more serious than just a 'lack of good'.

Why is Augustine's theodicy weak around fallen angels?

Why does God vary grace? Augustine says variety is good but there is no need for it to include so little willpower that angels end up rebelling. This suggests God doesn't think ahead which is impossible if he is omniscient.

What is a criticism of Augustine's theodicy based on free will and God?

If all is dependent on God then so is free will - if free will is true, God letting people commit evil makes him responsible if he has given us free will.

What does Schleiermacher argue?

It is a logical contradiction to claim the perfect world 'went wrong'. Either the world was imperfect, or God made it go wrong.

What does Kierkegaard argue about freedom?

"Freedom is a big nothing....a yawning chasm at the heart of human existence".

Why are we afraid of our freedom?

What is the key point of Augustine's theodicy?

Focused on 'soul-deciding' - concerned with judgement; response to evil decides destiny.

What is the key points of Irenaeus' theodicy?

Focused on 'soul-making' - concerned with development; presence of evil helps you grow.

What do both Augustine and Irenaeus share in common?

A belief in God and acceptance of Genesis.

Why does Irenaeus argue that suffering is allowed?

It is a necessary part of God's universe, as it makes us noble and brings out the best in humanity.

What does Irenaeus believe suffering is for?

A test through faith - despite God's purpose being difficult to discern, people still believe. For faith to become a virtue.

What did Irenaeus argue about imperfection?

We were created imperfect and need to develop (used by Hick).

Genesis 1:26

And then God said, "And now we will make human beings; they will be like us and resemble us."

What did Irenaeus believe about being made 'like God' vs 'resembling God'?

Like = We have intelligence, morality and personality.

Resemble = Souls can grow spiritually to resemble God's nature.

What did Irenaeus believe about the fall?

The fall may have destroyed God's form within us but did not destroy his content. It is a failure in the second phase aka 'likeness'; we need to grow to be like God.

What did Irenaeus believe about Adam and Eve?

They were immature and needed to develop outside of Eden.

What did Irenaeus believe about God and evil?

God was responsible for the evil that exists as he deliberately made a mix of good and evil so we can grow as humans and morally develop.

What did Irenaeus believe about good?

We have an appreciation of good which can be comparative and qualitative; we need evil to recognise and appreciate goodness.

What did Irenaeus believe about free will?

We are made imago dei so have free will - to grow into God's likeness, we need to exercise our free will to make moral decisions.

What does Irenaeus believe about good actions?

Good actions require effort of will and conscious choices.

What does Kant argue about moral choices?

We can only act morally if we have freedom of choice.

What does Irenaeus argue about evil existing via free will?

We learn about right and wrong from mistakes - free will entails having a choice of good vs evil, so evil must exist for us to exercise said choice. (This is moral evil). Removing free will would make us like robots.

What are problems with Irenaeus?

Denies the fall which is core in modern Christianity. Also calls into question Jesus' role as a saviour and claims all can go to heaven - what about those who have not learnt from evil, should it be unpunished?

Why is Irenaeus persuasive in some ways?

Reconciles God and evil coexisting if evil can result in good overall. Gives an explanation of how we can morally develop and grow.

What does Aquinas agree with Augustine on?

Evil is a privation of good.

What distinction did Aquinas make about evil?

It is a privation of good but not an absence of good

How did Aquinas justify evil being a privation of good rather an absence of good?

Evil is not just 'missing good', it is 'missing the good FOR ITS PURPOSE'. 'Good' is what goes towards Telos, so what is 'good' is different for everything and not universal, evil is the absence of something's essential nature.

What did Aquinas believe about the concept of pure evil?

There is no pure evil as that would be the complete absence of what it means to be the particular object, meaning it wouldn't exist.

Why is Augustine's theodicy problematic based on omniscience?

If God knows all, why did he not anticipate the misuse of free-will?

How does Irenaeus' theodicy fail?

Some people suffer a lot more, and suffering can make people worse rather than better. It can even turn people away from faith.

What does D.Z. Phillips argue about Irenaeus' theodicy?

It is wrong to suggest God planned evil as this suggests an evil God who was willing to let humans suffer so free will could be preserved.

Why is Irenaeus' theodicy potentially strong?

It recognises free will to develop morally and spiritually, providing comfort that suffering can let us develop.

Why is it argued that omnipotence is misunderstood in the Problem of Evil?

Swinburne argues that omnipotence is misunderstood as God can only do what is logically possible - it is a logical contradiction to allow us freedom while not allowing evil/suffering.

Why may evil be necessary?

The idea an omnibenevolent God would remove evil relies on the assumption that 'no evil' is always better than 'evil'.

Hick and Swinburne argue that evil is necessary to allow a free, mature relationship with God.

What does the evidential problem fail to recognise?

The uniqueness of God compared to humanity's limitations. We can never fully understand God's reasons.

How can the classical theistic God still be defended?

There is far greater good in the world than evil. We aren't able to fully understand evil and suffering, and besides, God is based on faith and does not have to explain evil.

What were Hick's views on moral development?

If we never experience difficulty, we would not develop personalities or learn morally.

What was Hick's quote on the world being a soul-making environment?

"A world which is to be a person making environment cannot be a pain-free paradise but must contain challenges and dangers with real possibilities of many accidents and disasters and the pain they bring."

What does Hick believe about the world?

The world is a vale of soul making where things happen for our good. This view is borrowed from John Keats and developed from Irenaeus into a 20th-century-compatible theodicy.

What was the context of Hick's theodicy?

Post-WW2 - many saw the atrocities as proof against God.

Theory of Evolution had replaced Augustinian literalism.

What are Hick's beliefs on evil?

Evil is not an unfortunate accident that God failed to foresee or an issue that God can't resolve - God gave us a world where we'd have to make choices towards him.

What are Hick's beliefs on epistemic distance?

God chose to remain hidden and created an ambiguous world where his existence is uncertain and evil exists so we can make truly free choices towards him.

What did Hick say would be an issue if God was fully revealed to all?

Faith would not be a choice or something to work towards - it needs to be a choice in the face of uncertainty to be true.

What was Hick's quote over our free choices if God was revealed?

"For what freedom could finite beings have in an immediate consciousness of the one who created them?"

What did Hick feel there needed to be for us to make free choices?

Good versus evil and uncertainty of God's existence.

How did Hick justify present hardships and suffering in the world?

Promise of eternal life - soul-making on earth prepares us for heaven with God. This is dependent on a belief in life after death and details how people continue to grow in the afterlife, and all can get salvation and be saved by God.

Why did Hick believe in universal salvation?

He worked with different religious groups in the 1960s in Birmingham - he thought an all-loving God would not deny people due to differing cultural ways of worship and devotion.