AP BIO FINAL

Water

H2O with partial positive charges on hydrogens and a partial negative charge on oxygen, making it polar.

Polar substances

Have opposite partial charges or unequal distribution of charges, attracting other polar substances, hydrophilic.

Non-polar substances

Have neutral charge, repel water, hydrophobic, like oil.

Covalent bonds

Formed by mutual sharing of electrons between atoms, can be nonpolar (equal sharing) or polar (unequal sharing).

Ionic bonds

Result in ions, formed by transfer of electrons between atoms with large electronegativity differences.

Hydrogen bonds

Weak intermolecular bonds between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom, like oxygen, creating a dipole.

Cohesion

Attraction of water molecules due to hydrogen bonds, seen in droplets of water.

Adhesion

Attraction of water to other substances, like water on a window or forming a meniscus.

Capillary action

Movement of liquid against gravity due to cohesion and adhesion, aiding in water transport in plants.

Surface tension

Resistance of water surface to rupture due to cohesive forces, seen in water striders and spherical objects.

Specific heat

Amount of heat needed to change the temperature of a substance, high in water due to hydrogen bonding.

Evaporative cooling

Water absorbs heat to evaporate, cooling surfaces, like sweat turning to vapor.

High solvency

Water's ability to dissolve many molecules due to its polarity.

Acids and bases

Solutions with varying hydrogen (acidic) or hydroxide (basic) ion concentrations, measured on a pH scale.

Matter

Anything with mass and occupying space, composed of atoms.

Atoms

Smallest unit of an element with protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Protons

Positively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic number

Number of protons in an atom's nucleus, unique to each element.

Atomic mass number

Sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

Neutrons

Neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom.

Nucleus

Central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons.

Electrons

Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.

Dalton/Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

Measure of molecular weight, with protons and neutrons close to 1 amu.

Elements

Substances not broken down by chemical reactions, composed of atoms with unique properties.

Compounds

Combinations of elements in fixed ratios, can be broken down further.

Isotope

Forms of an element with different neutron numbers, stable or radioactive.

Energy

Capacity for work or change.

Potential energy

Energy due to location or structure, with electrons having potential energy levels.

Valence electron

Outer shell electrons influencing atom behavior.

Chemical bonds

Forces holding atoms together in molecules, like covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.

Hydrolysis

Process where polymers are broken down into monomers by the addition of a water molecule, releasing energy.

Dehydration Synthesis

Reaction that builds molecules by removing a water molecule, requiring energy.

Enzymes

Proteins that catalyze dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions, named with the suffix -ase.

Carbohydrates

Molecules with a ratio of one carbon atom to one water molecule, classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars like glucose and fructose, with a formula of (CH2O)n, serving as an energy source for cells.

Disaccharides

Formed by joining two monosaccharides through dehydration synthesis, examples include lactose and sucrose.

Polysaccharides

Made of repeated monosaccharide units, such as starch, cellulose, and glycogen, serving as sugar storage or structural support.

Proteins

Made of 20 amino acids joined by peptide bonds, with different structures impacting their functions.

Lipids

Nonpolar molecules important for storage, insulation, and structure, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

Nucleic Acids

Made of nucleotides, forming DNA and RNA, with specific sequences and structures for genetic information storage.

Mitochondria

Organelles responsible for converting energy from organic molecules into ATP, with an inner membrane forming cristae and an outer membrane separating the matrix from the inter-membrane space.

Lysosome

Organelles containing digestive enzymes to break down old organelles, debris, or large particles, formed by fusion of vesicles from the trans Golgi and endocytosis.

Vacuoles

Fluid-filled sacs in plant cells storing water, food, or waste, with various types like food vacuoles and central vacuoles performing storage functions.

Chloroplasts

Organelles found in plant cells and photosynthesizing bacteria, with outer and inner membranes, containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis in cells, composed of large and small subunits, and can be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Cytoplasm

The fluid part of the cell excluding the nucleus, containing organelles and suspended in the cytosol.

Cytoskeleton

Network of fibers providing support and movement in the cell, including microtubules and microfilaments.

Cell Wall

Composed of cellulose, maintains cell shape, protects against stress, and regulates water uptake in plant cells.

Endosymbiotic theory

Suggests mitochondria and chloroplasts were once prokaryotic cells that evolved into eukaryotic organelles.

Endocytosis

Process where cells engulf substances too large to enter, forming vesicles like vacuoles or lysosomes.

Exocytosis

Cell process expelling waste or secretions by fusing vesicles with the plasma membrane.

Membrane Permeability

Different molecules pass through membranes via specific channels or proteins, based on size and polarity.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances across membranes without ATP, following concentration gradients.

Diffusion

Movement of substances from high to low concentration, including simple, facilitated, and osmosis types.

Water Potential

Total potential energy of water in a system, influenced by solute potential and pressure potential.

Active Transport

Movement of substances against gradients, requiring ATP, like the sodium-potassium pump.

Tonicity

Ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.

Osmoregulation

Process of maintaining salt and water balance in body fluids.

Hypertonic

Solution with higher solute concentration than inside the cell, causing water loss.

Hypotonic

Solution with lower solute concentration than inside the cell, leading to water gain.

Isotonic

Solution with equal solute concentration to the cell, resulting in no net movement of water.

Bulk Flow

One-way movement of fluids due to pressure differences.

Dialysis

Solute movement through a selectively permeable membrane.

Biomass

The total mass of all organisms, plants, and animals in an ecosystem, used to measure and record the energy in the ecosystem.

Biomass Pyramid

A graphical representation showing the living matter present per area unit at different trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Chemosynthesis

The process by which certain microbes create energy by mediating chemical reactions, often observed in ecosystems like hydrothermal vents.

Carbon Cycle

The cycle through which carbon moves through Earth's various systems, involving processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.

Nitrogen Cycle

The repeating cycle of processes during which nitrogen moves through living and nonliving components like the atmosphere, soil, plants, animals, and bacteria.

Primary Production

The amount of light energy converted to chemical energy or food by producers during a given time period in an ecosystem.

Gross Primary Production

The total amount of energy produced, including energy used by plants for respiration, per unit of time through photosynthesis.

Net Primary Production

The difference between Gross Primary Production and the energy used by primary producers for respiration, indicating the amount of energy available for higher trophic levels.

Respiration

The process through which organisms lose CO2 due to metabolic activities, affecting the energy flow in ecosystems.

Water Cycle

The continuous movement of water between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and land, driven by processes like evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.

Termination

Stop codon binds to releasing factor leading to the dissociation of the ribosome

Polyribosomes

Multiple ribosomes simultaneously translating a single mRNA

Point Mutation

One base pair substitution in the genetic material of the cell

Frameshift Mutation

Insertion/deletion of base changes the reading frame

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries genetic message from DNA to the protein-synthesizing machinery

Codon

Triplets of nucleotides that code for specific amino acids

Promoter

DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription

Terminator

Sequence that ends transcription in bacteria

RNA Processing

Modifying pre-mRNA by adding a 5’ cap and a poly-A tail

Regulatory Sequences

DNA stretches that can promote or inhibit protein synthesis

Transcription Factors

Proteins that regulate gene expression by promoting or inhibiting transcription

Operons

Closely linked genes producing a single mRNA molecule during transcription

Lac Operon

An example of an inducible system usually turned off until an inducer binds to the regulatory protein

Amphipathic

Both Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic