PSYC 455 Exam 2 Study Guide

A set of vocabulary flashcards to help review key concepts from the PSYC 455 Exam 2 Study Guide.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a positive outcome after a desired behavior to increase that behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unwanted outcome after a desired behavior to increase that behavior.

Punishment

Adding an unwanted outcome after a bad behavior to decrease that behavior.

Extinction

Removing a consequence after a behavior to decrease that behavior.

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcement occurs every time the behavior happens, leading to fast learning but also fast extinction.

Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses, producing high response rates with brief pauses.

Variable Ratio (VR) schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a random number of responses, producing high and steady response rates.

Fixed Interval (FI) schedule

The first desired response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced, leading to a scallop pattern in behavior.

Variable Interval (VI) schedule

The first desired response after a random amount of time is reinforced, resulting in a steady, moderate response rate.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people, which can lead to incorrect assumptions.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule-of-thumb that simplifies decision-making.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or prototypes.

Availability heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Anchoring & adjustment

The tendency to rely too heavily on an initial piece of information when making decisions.

Escalation of commitment

Continuing to invest in a failing decision because of prior investments.

Big Five personality traits

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN).

Openness to Experience

A trait describing someone’s curiosity, imagination, and willingness to embrace new ideas.

Conscientiousness

A trait that reflects a person's organization, dependability, and work ethic.

Extraversion

A trait that indicates how outgoing and sociable a person is.

Agreeableness

A trait that reflects how cooperative and compassionate a person is.

Neuroticism

A personality trait characterized by emotional instability and a tendency towards anxiety.

Self-awareness

The ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions.

Other-awareness (Empathy)

The ability to recognize and understand the emotions of others.

Emotion use

The ability to harness emotions to improve success in tasks.

Emotion regulation

The ability to control or adjust one’s emotions as needed.

Tuckman’s stages of team development

Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning.

Pooled interdependence

Team members work independently and combine their work for the final output.

Sequential interdependence

Work flows in a line; one member’s output becomes the next member’s input.

Reciprocal interdependence

Members work in sub-groups, with work flowing back-and-forth between them.

Comprehensive interdependence

Everyone works with everyone in a highly collaborative manner.

Team cohesion

The degree to which team members are united and committed to the team's goals.

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

A theory focusing on the quality of the relationship between a leader and each follower.

Situational Leadership

A model suggesting that effective leaders adjust their style based on the readiness of their followers.

Initiating Structure

Leader behavior that defines roles, organizes work, and pushes for goal attainment.

Consideration

Leader behavior that builds trust, respects employees, and demonstrates concern for their well-being.

Transactional Leadership

A leadership style based on exchanges between leaders and followers to motivate performance.

Transformational Leadership

A leadership style that inspires and motivates followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes.

Organizational culture

Shared values, beliefs, and norms that influence how employees think, feel, and behave.

Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) framework

A process that describes how organizations attract, select, and retain individuals who fit their culture.

Culture strength

The degree of agreement among members about the organization’s culture.

Culture elevation

The average perceived level of a particular cultural value across the organization.