structured interviews

• Interviews can be carried out how?

Sociologists use different types of interview - the main difference is in how free the interviewer is to vary the questions. - what are the three types?

• Interviews can be carried out either face to face or by telephone.

• Sociologists use different types of interview - the main difference is in how free the interviewer is to vary the questions. There is :

  1. structured/formal interviews

  2. unstructured/informal interviews

  3. semi-structured interviews

Structured or formal interviews.

• Each interview is conducted in the same s_______ way, with precisely the same questions, w_____, o____, t____ of v____ etc.

Unstructured, informal or discovery interviews

• like a g____ c____

• The interviewer is free to vary the q____, w_____, order etc, pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate, asking f_____-u____ questions etc.

• which interviews are usually relatively unstructured? They include f____ g____, where the researcher asks the group to d_____ certain topics and r____ their views.

Semi-structured interviews

• have the same set of questions in common, but the interviewer can also do what?

Structured or formal interviews.

• Each interview is conducted in the same standardised way, with precisely the same questions, wording, order, tone of voice etc.

Unstructured, informal or discovery interviews

• like a guided conversation

• The interviewer is free to vary the questions, wording, order etc, pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate, asking follow-up questions etc.

• Group interviews are usually relatively unstructured. They include focus groups, where the researcher asks the group to discuss certain topics and records their views.

Semi-structured interviews

• have the same set of questions in common, but the interviewer can also probe for more information and ask additional questions.

Structured interviews are like questionnaires- what are 3 similarities between the two

• The main difference is that in a structured interview, the questions are r___ o____ and the answers f____ in by a trained interviewer, rather than by the interviewee.

• Interviews thus involve a s____ i_____ between interviewer and interviewee, whereas with written questionnaires the respondent usually a____ the questions without the r_____ i____.

Structured interviews are like questionnaires

• both involve asking people a fixed set of prepared questions.

• In both cases, the questions are usually closed-ended with pre-coded answers.

• Both produce mainly quantitative data.

• The main difference is that in a structured interview, the questions are read out and the answers filled in by a trained interviewer, rather than by the interviewee.

• Interviews thus involve a social interaction between interviewer and interviewee, whereas with written questionnaires the respondent usually answers the questions without the researcher's involvement.

The basic similarity between the two methods means they share many of the same what?Where there are differences, these often come from the fact that structured interviews involve i_____ between researcher and interviewee.

The basic similarity between the two methods means they share many of the same strengths and limitations. Where there are differences, these often come from the fact that structured interviews involve interaction between researcher and interviewee.

Practical ✓advantages of using structured interviews

• Structured interviews can cover quite l____ n_____ of people because they are q___ and fairly c____ to administer. For example, Y_____ and W_____ (19___) interviewed ____ people in this way in their research on

• They are suitable for gathering s_____ f_____ information such as a person's age, job, religion, daily

• Results are easily q____ because they use c__-ended questions with p___-c____ answers. This makes them suitable for h____ t___.

Practical ✓advantages of using structured interviews

• Structured interviews can cover quite large numbers of people because they are quick and fairly cheap to administer. For example, Young and Willmott (1962) interviewed 933 people in this way in their research on

• They are suitable for gathering straightforward factual information such as a person's age, job, religion, daily

• Results are easily quantified because they use closed-ended questions with pre-coded answers. This makes them suitable for hypothesis testing.

Practical ✘limitations of using structured interviews

• Training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive, since all they are really required to do is follow a set of instructions. However, this is more costly than what?

• Like questionnaires, structured interviews are inflexible- why? This makes it impossible to pursue what?

• Because the interview schedule is drawn up in advance, researchers must already have some k____ of the subject and a clear hypothesis to test. This makes structured interviews unsuitable for investigating what

• Structured interviews are only snapshots taken at one moment in time, so they fail to capture what?

Practical ✘limitations of using structured interviews

• Training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive, since all they are really required to do is follow a set of instructions. However, this is more _costly than simply posting questionnaires to people.

• Like questionnaires, structured interviews are inflexible, because the interview schedule is drawn up in advance and the interviewer must stick to it rigidly. This makes it impossible to pursue any interesting leads that may emerge in the course of the interview.

• Because the interview schedule is drawn up in advance, researchers must already have some knowledge of the subject and a clear hypothesis to test. This makes structured interviews unsuitable for investigating unfamiliar topics where the researcher has little idea what the important issues are.

• Structured interviews are only snapshots taken at one moment in time, so they fail to capture the dynamic nature of social life.

Ethical ✘limitations of using structured interviews

• As the interview is a social interaction, the interviewee may feel under some p____ to answer questions.

• Some f_____ also regard structured interviews as at least potentially o_____ to women interviewees.

• Where unstructured interviews deal with s____ or p____ issues, care needs to be exercised to avoid causing what?

• Researchers should gain interviewees i_____ c____, make it clear they have a r____ not to a_____ any questions that they do not wish to, and guarantee a____ and c____.

• However, there may sometimes be difficulties, For example, B_____ (1999) notes that it can be difficult to keep confidential the identity of who____ who have been interviewed. Il their case has received much p_____, even m_____ details may make them i_____

• There are also s______ c____ in interviewing v____ people, such as children or those with mental health problems. For example, such interviews may need to be kept brief and special care needs to be taken not to put pressure on the interviewee.

• what may be required when interviewing children?

Ethical ✘limitations of using structured interviews

• As the interview is a social interaction, the interviewee may feel under some pressure to answer questions.

• Some feminists also regard structured interviews as at least potentially oppressive to women interviewees.

• Where unstructured interviews deal with sensitive or painful issues, care needs to be exercised to avoid causing psychological harm.

• Researchers should gain interviewees informed consent, make it clear they have a right not to answer any questions that they do not wish to, and guarantee anonymity and confidentiality.

• However, there may sometimes be difficulties, For example, Brookman (1999) notes that it can be difficult to keep confidential the identity of murderers who have been interviewed. Il their case has received much publicity, even minimal details may make them identifiable.

• There are also special considerations in interviewing vulnerable people, such as children or those with mental health problems. For example, such interviews may need to be kept brief and special care needs to be taken not to put pressure on the interviewee.

• Parental consent may be required when interviewing children.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews

• The sociologist's m_____ p_____ plays an important part in deciding whether to use structured interviews.

• While who? favour structured interviews, who ? are more critical of them.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews

• The sociologist's methodological perspective plays an important part in deciding whether to use structured interviews.

• While positivists favour structured interviews, interpretivists, feminists and others are more critical of them.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

• Positivists adopt a s_____ approach to the study of society.

• For positivists, structured interviews produce r_____ and g_____ findings.

• They are a r____, o_____ and d____ method for producing q_____ data, testing h____ and developing what?

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

• Positivists adopt a scientific approach to the study of society.

• For positivists, structured interviews produce representative and generalisable findings.

• They are a reliable, objective and detached method for producing quantitative data, testing hypotheses and developing causal laws of social behaviour.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

Hypothesis testing

• Positivists model their approach on the natural sciences and seek to discover laws of cause and effect.

• Structured interviews are attractive to positivists because they enable them to test hypotheses and identify possible cause-and-effect relationships.

• Just like questionnaires, structured interviews can establish correlations between variables (between gender and crime, etc) by analysing interviewees' answers.

• This allows us to make generalisations about behaviour patterns - for example, that women are less likely than men to commit crime.

• Once a correlation has been established, we can construct a hypothesis about its possible cause - for example, women commit less crime because of their socialisation. In turn, this hypothesis can be tested with a further set of interviews.

• in this way, causal laws can be discovered, just as in the natural sciences.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

Hypothesis testing

• Positivists model their approach on the natural sciences and seek to discover laws of cause and effect.

• Structured interviews are attractive to positivists because they enable them to test hypotheses and identify possible cause-and-effect relationships.

• Just like questionnaires, structured interviews can establish correlations between variables (between gender and crime, etc) by analysing interviewees' answers.

• This allows us to make generalisations about behaviour patterns - for example, that women are less likely than men to commit crime.

• Once a correlation has been established, we can construct a hypothesis about its possible cause - for example, women commit less crime because of their socialisation. In turn, this hypothesis can be tested with a further set of interviews.

• in this way, causal laws can be discovered, just as in the natural sciences.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

Reliability

• If a method is reliable, then any other sociologist can do what?

• Positivists see structured interviews, as s_____ m_____ i____ - they are reliable because they are easy to s_____ and c____.

• For example, interviewers can be trained to c____ each interview in precisely the same way, with the same q_____, w___, o____, t___ of v___ and so on.

• These procedures are easy for other researchers to replicate, since they do not depend on what?- all interviewers conduct each interview in i_____ f____.

• Similarly, pre-coded answers to questions mean that a later researcher will c_____ answers in the same way as the original researcher.

• The structured interview thus provides a 'r____' for repeating the research: anyone who follows it should get the s____ r____.

• The fact that all interviewees are asked exactly the same questions also means we can compare their answers easily to identify similarities and differences.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

Reliability

• If a method is reliable, then any other sociologist can repeat the research and obtain the same results.

• Positivists see structured interviews, as standardised measuring instrument - they are reliable because they are easy to standardise and control.

• For example, interviewers can be trained to conduct each interview in precisely the same way, with the same questions, wording, order, tone of voice and so on.

• These procedures are easy for other researchers to replicate, since they do not depend on the interviewer's personal characteristics - all interviewers conduct each interview in identical fashion.

• Similarly, pre-coded answers to questions mean that a later researcher will categorise answers in the same way as the original researcher.

• The structured interview thus provides a 'recipe' for repeating the research: anyone who follows it should get the same result.

• The fact that all interviewees are asked exactly the same questions also means we can compare their answers easily to identify similarities and differences.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

Representativeness

• Structured interviews are relatively q____ and c____ to c____, so l_____ n____ can be surveyed

• This increases the chances of obtaining a representative sample.

• Relatively h_____ r_____ r____ and the sophisticated sampling techniques that are often used also help to improve representativeness.

✓- These features make structured interviews attractive to positivists because they can use the r_____ data as a basis for making g____ and c____-and-e____ statements about the w____ population.

✘- On the other hand, as with questionnaires, those with the t___ or w____ to be interviewed may be untypical (for example, they may be l____). This makes for u____ findings and undermines the v____ of any generalisations made.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Positivism

Representativeness

• Structured interviews are relatively quick and cheap to conduct, so large numbers can be surveyed.

• This increases the chances of obtaining a representative sample.

• Relatively high response rates and the sophisticated sampling techniques that are often used also help to improve representativeness.

✓- These features make structured interviews attractive to positivists because they can use the representative data as a basis for making generalisations and cause-and-effect statements about the wider population.

✘- On the other hand, as with questionnaires, those with the time or willingness to be interviewed may be untypical (for example, they may be lonely). This makes for unrepresentative findings and undermines the validity of any generalisations made.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Interpretivism

• Interpretivists are concerned to uncover the meanings that actors use to c____ social r____. They argue that to do this, we need a method high in validity - one that gives a true picture of the subject being researched.

• In their view, this can only be achieved through the use of qualitative methods.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Interpretivism

• Interpretivists are concerned to uncover the meanings that actors use to construct social reality. They argue that to do this, we need a method high in validity - one that gives a true picture of the subject being researched.

• In their view, this can only be achieved through the use of qualitative methods.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Interpretivism

Quantitative methods such as structured interviews tend to produce a f_____ p____. There are several reasons for this:

• Structured interviews usually use closed-ended questions. - what is this the problem with this?

• Structured interviews give interviewers little f_____ to e____ q____ or clarify m____.

• People may l____ or e____ and this will produce i____ data.

• The sociologist has to draw up the interview schedule in a____, perhaps with l____ p____ knowledge of the, leaving the researcher to decide in a_____ what is i_____ - yet this may not c____ with what the i_____ thinks is i_____. Structured interviews thus risk imposing what? on interviewees. Their findings may lack validity because they do not reflect what?

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Interpretivism

Quantitative methods such as structured interviews tend to produce a false picture. There are several reasons for this:

• Structured interviews usually use closed-ended questions. - This forces interviewees to choose from a limited number of pre-set answers. If none of these fits what the interviewee really wishes to say, the data produced will be invalid

• Structured interviews give interviewers little freedom to explain questions or clarify misunderstandings.

• People may lie or exaggerate and this will produce invalid data.

• The sociologist has to draw up the interview schedule in advance, perhaps with little prior knowledge of the, leaving the researcher to decide in advance what is important - yet this may not coincide with what the interviewee thinks is important. Structured interviews thus risk imposing the researcher's framework of ideas on interviewees. Their findings may lack validity because they do not reflect the interviewee's concerns and priorities.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Interpretivism

All interviews involve s____ i____ ( e_____, i_____ and b____) between interviewer and interviewee, and this may undermine the v____ of the data in several ways.

• S____ d____ between interviewer and interviewee may affect the latter's h_____ or w____ to c____. If the interviewer has h____ s____ s____ (for example highly educated), the interviewee may feel i_____ or i____ - As a result, the interviewee may give s____ d_____ answers,

• C_____ d_____ may lead to m______ when d_____ m_____ are given to words. Interviewers may also not realise when they are being lied to.

• S_____ d______ → Interviewees may give answers that make them appear more i_____, n____ etc. They may wish not to appear i___ and so may offer a___ a____ at all rather than admit what?

• I______ b_____ → The interviewer may ask l_____ q_____, or influence answers by their t____ of v_____. Interviewer bias can also occur where the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees.

✓- However, While all interviews risk distorting the data, structured interviews may be less susceptible to what? and why?

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Interpretivism

All interviews involve social interaction ( emotions, ideals and beliefs) between interviewer and interviewee, and this may undermine the validity of the data in several ways.

• Status differences between interviewer and interviewee may affect the latter's honesty or willingness to cooperate. If the interviewer has higher social status (for example highly educated), the interviewee may feel intimidated or inferior - As a result, the interviewee may give socially desirable answers,

• Cultural differences may lead to misunderstandings when different meanings are given to words. Interviewers may also not realise when they are being lied to.

• Social desirability → Interviewees may give answers that make them appear more interesting, normal etc. They may wish not to appear ignorant and so may offer any answer at all rather than admit they don't know.

• Interviewer bias → The interviewer may ask leading' questions, or influence answers by their tone of voice. Interviewer bias can also occur where the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees.

✓- However, While all interviews risk distorting the data, structured interviews may be less susceptible because there are more controls over the interaction. For example, following a standard list of pre-set questions restricts the interviewer's ability to ask leading questions.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

• Many feminists reject survey methods such as structured interviews and questionnaires.

• They argue that the relationship between researcher and researched reflects the what?

• As a result, women’s experiences may be o______, s____, or taken without giving anything in r____,

• R_____ (1983) goes so far as to call this approach to data collection 'r_____ as r____':

  'The researchers t_____, h____ and r_____. They i____ into their s____' p____... m____ the r_____, and give l____ or n_____ in r____. When the needs of the researchers are s_____, they break off c____ with the subjects.'

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

• Many feminists reject survey methods such as structured interviews and questionnaires.

• They argue that the relationship between researcher and researched reflects the exploitative nature of gender relationships in patriarchal society.

• As a result, women’s experiences may be oversimplified, silenced, or taken without giving anything in return,

• Reinharz (1983) goes so far as to call this approach to data collection 'research as rape':

  'The researchers take, hit and run. They intrude into their subjects' privacy... manipulate the relationships, and give little or nothing in return. When the needs of the researchers are satisfied, they break off contact with the subjects.'

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

• A____ O_____ (1981) argues that this p____ 'm_____' approach to research places a high value on what 3 things?, and regards 'science' as more important than what?

• This can lead to women’s lived experiences being m_____, o_____, or i_____, particularly experiences linked to e____, c____, or o____, which positivism often sees as what?

• As a result, research may benefit a_____ k____ rather than w___ themselves, failing to challenge g____ i____ or bring about s___ c___

• Thus, interviewers must remain d_____ and in control and avoid any p involvement with interviewees.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

• Ann Oakley (1981) argues that this positivistic 'masculine' approach to research places a high value on objectivity, detachment and hierarchy, and regards 'science' as more important than furthering the interests of the people it researches.

• This can lead to women’s lived experiences being misinterpreted, oversimplified, or ignored, particularly experiences linked to emotion, care, or oppression, which positivism often dismisses as “unscientific.”

• As a result, research may benefit academic knowledge rather than women themselves, failing to challenge gender inequality or bring about social change.

• Thus, interviewers must remain detached and in control and avoid any personal involvement with interviewees.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

In structured interviews, there is a strict d____ of l___:

• what role does the researcher take?

• what role does the Interviewee take?

This mirrors the g____ d_____ and h____ of p____ s____.

• H_____ G____ (1983) takes a similar view.

• She claims that questionnaires and structured interviews give a d____ and invalid picture of women's experience - they impose what? women, making it difficult for them to express their e____, and concealing what?

• This 'masculine' approach to interviewing is very similar to what?

• Similarly, the feminist criticisms of structured interviews and questionnaires recall those made by interpretivists.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

In structured interviews, there is a strict division of labour:

• The researcher takes the active role in asking the questions.

• Interviewees have a passive role as mere objects of study, to be milked for information by answering the questions. They have no role in deciding the subject or direction of the interview.

This mirrors the gender divisions and hierarchies of patriarchal society.

• Hilary Graham (1983) takes a similar view.

• She claims that questionnaires and structured interviews give a distorted and invalid picture of women's experience - they impose the researcher's categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their experiences, and concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes.

• This 'masculine' approach to interviewing is very similar to the positivist view of how research should be conducted.

• Similarly, the feminist criticisms of structured interviews and questionnaires recall those made by interpretivists.

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

• Like the interpretivists, Oakley and Graham argue that sociologists should use methods that allow what?

• For example, Graham advocates the use of what method?, while Oakley argues for what method?

Theoretical issues and structured interviews → Feminism

• Like the interpretivists, Oakley and Graham argue that sociologists should use methods that allow the researcher to understand women's experiences and viewpoint.

• For example, Graham advocates the use of direct observation, while Oakley argues for unstructured interviews.