World in 1750: Enlightenment and Revolution

Historical vocabulary terms covering the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment philosophy, the French Revolution, the rise and fall of Napoleon, and the independence movements in Latin America.

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-$1500s$, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

natural philosophers

Refers to the scientists of the Scientific Revolution who used observation and reason to understand the physical world.

geocentric theory

The medieval view of the universe which held that the Earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe.

heliocentric theory

The sun-centered view of the universe where the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun.

scientific method

A logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas by using observation, hypothesis, and experimentation.

René Descartes

A mathematician and philosopher who developed analytical geometry and believed that everything should be doubted until proven by reason.

Francis Bacon

An English statesman and writer who promoted empiricism and urged scientists to experiment rather than rely on abstract theories.

absolutism / absolute monarchy

A form of government where a ruler holds total power, often claiming divine right to rule.

Enlightenment

An $18^{th}$-century intellectual movement that emphasized reason and individualism rather than tradition.

social contract

An agreement between a people and their government, where individuals give up some freedoms in exchange for social order.

natural rights

The fundamental rights to life, liberty, and property that all people are born with, according to John Locke.

natural law

A body of unchanging moral principles regarded as a basis for all human conduct and discovered through reason.

state of nature

A concept used in political philosophy to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the formation of organized society.

general will

A collective desire of the people for the common good, as proposed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

consent of the governed

The idea that a government's legitimacy and moral right to use state power is only justified when agreed to by the people.

free market

An economic system in which prices are determined by unrestricted competition between privately owned businesses.

philosophes

A group of French intellectuals of the Enlightenment who applied reason to the study of many areas, including politics and economics.

separation of powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from becoming too powerful.

checks and balances

A system that allows each branch of government to amend or veto acts of another branch so as to prevent any one branch from exerting too much power.

Adam Smith

A Scottish economist who wrote 'The Wealth of Nations' and defended the idea of a free market economy.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

An Enlightenment philosopher who argued for a social contract based on the 'general will' of the people.

Thomas Hobbes

An English philosopher who argued that people are naturally selfish and need an absolute monarchy to maintain order.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An advocate for women's rights who argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful.

John Locke

A philosopher who believed in democracy and that government must protect the natural rights (life, liberty, property) of its citizens.

Voltaire

A prolific writer and philosophe who fought for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech.

Baron de Montesquieu

An influential French writer who proposed the separation of powers in government.

Denis Diderot

An Enlightenment figure who served as the chief editor of the 'Encyclopedia', which spread rationalist ideas throughout Europe.

Olympe de Gouges

A female activist and playwright who wrote the 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen' during the French Revolution.

King Louis XVI

The Bourbon monarch of France during the late $1700s$ whose indecisiveness contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Marie Antoinette

The Queen of France and wife of Louis XVI who was widely unpopular due to her perceived extravagance and foreign origins.

Ancién Regime

The political and social system of the Kingdom of France from the Late Middle Ages until the Revolution of $1789$.

Estates General

France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society.

Constitution of 1791

A French constitution created by the National Assembly that restricted the power of the king and established a limited constitutional monarchy.

Tennis Court Oath

A vow by the members of the Third Estate to continue meeting until they had written a new constitution for France.

National Assembly

A revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate to enact laws and reforms.

"Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen"

A core document of the French Revolution expressing the natural rights of all citizens, including liberty, property, and security.

Storming the Bastille

The attack on a royal prison on July $14$, $1789$, which served as a symbol of the start of the French Revolution.

March on Versailles

An event where thousands of Parisian women marched to the royal palace to protest the high price of bread and force the king to return to Paris.

Maximillien Robespierre

A radical Jacobin leader who headed the Committee of Public Safety and oversaw the Reign of Terror.

National Convention

The governing body that replaced the Legislative Assembly, abolished the monarchy, and declared France a republic.

guillotine

A machine used to execute people by beheading, designed to be a more 'humane' and efficient method during the French Revolution.

Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution when Maximillien Robespierre led a series of mass executions of 'enemies of the revolution'.

Napoleonic Code

A comprehensive and uniform system of laws established for France by Napoleon Bonaparte.

popular sovereignty

The political principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of major conflicts led by Napoleon I against a rotating coalition of European powers between $1803$ and $1815$.

exile to Elba & St. Helena

The two islands where Napoleon was sent after his first and second abdications, respectively.

Hundred Days

The period between Napoleon's return from exile on Elba to Paris and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII.

Battle of Waterloo

The final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in $1815$ by British and Prussian forces.

Haitian Revolution

The only successful slave revolt in history, which led to the creation of the independent nation of Haiti.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

A former slave who became the leader of the Haitian Revolution and drove French forces out of Saint-Domingue.

caste system

The rigid social hierarchy in Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America based on ethnicity and place of birth.

peninsulares

Members of the highest social class in the Latin American colonies who were born in Spain.

creoles

Colonists born in Latin America but of Spanish descent, who often led the movements for independence.

mulattoes

Individuals of mixed European and African ancestry in Latin American colonial society.

mestizos

Individuals of mixed European and Native American ancestry in Latin American colonial society.

viceroyalties

Administrative districts in the Spanish Empire governed by a viceroy as the representative of the monarch.

José de San Martín

An Argentine general and revolutionary leader who helped liberate Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish rule.

Venezuelan Revolution

The conflict through which Venezuela gained independence from the Spanish Empire, largely under the leadership of Simón Bolívar.

Simón Bolívar

Known as 'The Liberator', he was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led many South American countries to independence.

guerilla warfare

A form of irregular warfare where small groups use unconventional tactics like ambushes and raids to fight a larger military.

Miguel Hidalgo

A Mexican priest who led the first major revolt against Spanish rule in Mexico.

José María Morelos

A Mexican revolutionary priest who succeeded Miguel Hidalgo and led the push for independence after Hidalgo's defeat.

Dom Pedro

The son of the Portuguese King who stayed in Brazil and declared the country's independence in $1822$.