Beh Sci 110 USAFA GR 2

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

food for good

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

getting a speeding ticket

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

taking away privileges

classical conditioning vs operant conditioning

-the first is learning reflexes to neutral stimuli and -the second is learning to make voluntary actions based on learned rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

prosocial modeling

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

you see someone get a positive form 10 for volunteering for a parade

antisocial modeling

-detrimental, destructive, unhelpful behavior

-ex: someone goes on the wrong strip and gets yelled at

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

interval reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is reinforced after a certain time period has elapsed.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

working/short term memory

a kind of workspace in which information from sensory memory and long-term memory is brought together, attended to, and processed

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrival

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Chucking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Hierachies

broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

LTP (long term potentiation)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

aterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

missinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

imagination effect

occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories

source amnesia (source misattribution)

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

impact on memory construction

Makes us misremember events

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

hippocampus/frontal lobes

semantic/epidosic

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

impicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

space/time/frequency, motor & cognitive skills, classical conditioning

cerebellum & basal ganglia

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

primacy and recency effect

the tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first or last in a sequence

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

prototype

used to form concept a mental image or best example of a category

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

universal emotions

happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

seatbelt ding goes away

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

how cognition increases efficiency and guides thinking

think faster

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

conformation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

hindsight bias

"I knew it all along"

Perceived order in random events

When one will believe that there is a pattern where there is none.

System 1 thinking

Automatic, fast, little or no effort, no sense of voluntary control

System 2 thinking

Reflective thinking that is slow, deliberate, and conscious. Often less charged with emotions.

social support

the aid gained through interacting with others

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

avoidant coping

a method of responding to a stressor by ignoring, forgetting, or hiding it

Catharsis

the process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions.

facial feedback hypothesis

The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

optimism

Hopefulness and confidence about the future or the successful outcome of something

stress appraisal

the events of our lives flow through a psychological filter. How we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond.

spontaneous remission

recovery from a disorder that occurs without formal treatment

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations