ap psychology midterm review (WORK IN PROGRESS)

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory in Germany

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Edward Titchener

used introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements

functionalism

early school of though promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Gestalt psychology

an organized whole— _____ psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

behaviorism

the view that psychology:
1. should be an objective science that
2. studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2

psychoanalytic

our childhood experiences and unconscious desires shape our behavior (Sigmund Freud)

Cognitive psychology

scientifically explores the ways we perceive, process, and remember information

Humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people (Carl Rogers)

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

psychiatrists; psychologists

_________ are medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs, and _________ assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavior disorders

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlational studies

studies that measure the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experimental group; control group

___________ is the group exposed to the treatment (one version of the independent variable), and the ____________ is the group not exposed to the treatment and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied (think x axis)

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable (think y axis)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord; the body’s decision maker

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; responsible for gathering information

sensory neurons (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons (efferent)

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles, also called the skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system

the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (e.g. heart)

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (arouses)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy (calms)

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. these scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. these scans show brain function as well as its structure

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and the hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The _______ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference

Weber’s law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation